定義上,SLA 就係指緊一個人對非 L1 語言嘅熟練度隨住時間噉升,而要做 SLA 研究,就梗要搵啲方法量度語言熟練度先得—例如想像家陣有班專攻 SLA 嘅語言學家手上有 A 同 B 呢兩隻語言教法,佢哋想知邊隻教法有效啲,最簡單嘅做法係可以搵班用教法 A 學緊隻語言嘅人返嚟,又搵班用教法 B 學緊隻語言嘅人返嚟,比較吓兩組,睇吓邊組嘅語言熟練度升得比較快[註 3]。因為噉,專攻 SLA 嘅語言學家實要有方法客觀噉量度語言熟練度[7]。
Alem, D. D. (2020). Strategic Competence and its implication in language teaching (PDF). Journal of Advances in Social Science and Humanities, 6(10), 1326-1333. "Some of compensation strategies are word coinage, circumlocution, foregnizing, literal translation, nonlinguistic means, restructuring, approximation"
Başöz, T. (2015). Exploring the relationship between tolerance of ambiguity of EFL learners and their vocabulary knowledge. Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies, 11(2), 53-66.
Dela Rosa, J. P. O., & Arguelles, D. C. (2016). Do Modification and Interaction Work?--A Critical Review of Literature on the Role of Foreigner Talk in Second Language Acquisition. Journal on English Language Teaching, 6(3), 46-60,又有啲語言學家喺度觀察人用自己嘅 L1 嚟同學緊 L1 嘅外地人講嘢,分析佢哋(簡化講)點樣將自己講嘅嘢簡化或者檢查對方「係咪真係明自己講咗乜」,方便啲外地人學嗰隻語言。
Faez, F., Karas, M., & Uchihara, T. (2021). Connecting language proficiency to teaching ability: A meta-analysis. Language Teaching Research, 25(5), 754-777,呢篇文探討老師對自己教學能力嘅自信會點影響學生嘅語言熟練度,當中 6 有講到啲研究點量度語言熟練度。
Huang, S., & Kan, P. F. (2022). Cross-linguistic transfer between aspect in Cantonese and past tense in English in Cantonese-English bilingual preschool children. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 24(4), 385-394.
Chapter 6.6 "Towards a model",有講到 SLA 涉及外顯知識變內顯知識(DEC-PRO)嘅過程,又會涉及內顯知識變外顯知識(PRO-DEC)嘅過程。
Ludwig, J., Fu, D., Bardovi-Harlig, K., Stringer, D., & San Mateo, C. A. (2009). Serious games for second language retention. In Proceedings of the Industry/Interservice, Training, Simulation & Education Conference (I/ITSEC 2009) (pp. 1-10).
Palmer, H. E. (1924). English intonation with systematic exercises. W. Heffer,有提到學英文嘅人學起上嚟搞唔掂英文嗰啲語調。
Paradis, M. (2007). L1 attrition features predicted by a neurolinguistic theory of bilingualism. In B. Köpke, M. S. Schmid, M. Keijzer, & S. Dostert (Eds.), Language attrition: Theoretical perspectives (pp. 121-134). John Benjamins. "What is affected in attrition is accessibility rather than representation of knowledge."
Ramírez Verdugo, D. (2006). A study of intonation awareness and learning in non-native speakers of English. Language awareness, 15(3), 141-159,呢篇文有講到學語言嗰時要學埋啲語調係幾咁難。
Schmidt, R. W. (1990). The role of consciousness in second language learning1. Applied linguistics, 11(2), 129-158.
Van Wonderen, E., & Unsworth, S. (2021). Testing the validity of the Cross-Linguistic Lexical Task as a measure of language proficiency in bilingual children. Journal of Child Language, 48(6), 1101-1125,呢篇文第 3 頁有討論一隻語言嘅複雜度可以用乜基準嚟量度。
Zorzi, M., Houghton, G., & Butterworth, B. (1998). The development of spelling-sound relationships in a model of phonological reading. Language and Cognitive Processes, 13(2-3), 337-371,呢篇文講到英文寫起上嚟啲字嘅串法成日都唔跟固定規則,例如 word([wɜːd])同 bird([bɜːd])明明用口講嗰陣元音同結尾輔音都一樣,但寫起嚟就一個用 -ord 一個用 -ird。
語言天份測試:
Carroll, J. B., & Sapon, S. M. (1959). Modern language aptitude test. Psychological Corporation,講到一個到咗廿一世紀初都仲好多人用嘅語言天份測試。
Sasaki, M. (2012). The modern language aptitude test (paper-and-pencil version). Language Testing, 29(2), 315-321.
Izumi, S., Bigelow, M., Fujiwara, M., & Fearnow, S. (1999). Testing the output hypothesis: Effects of output on noticing and second language acquisition. Studies in second Language acquisition, 21(3), 421-452,Output 假說就主張一個人要成功學到一隻語言,一定要係噉嘗試畀 output-寫嘢或者講嘢都好,先至會留意到某啲語言錯誤。
Leung, G., Uchikoshi, Y., & Tong, R. (2018). "Learning Cantonese will help us": Elementary school students' perceptions of dual language education. Bilingual research journal, 41(3), 238-252.
Ng, L. L., & Lee, S. L. (2019). Translanguaging practices and identity construction of multilingual Malaysian university graduates in digital media. English Teaching & Learning, 43(1), 105-123.
Bachman, L. F., & Clark, J. L. (1987). The measurement of foreign/second language proficiency. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 490(1), 20-33,呢篇文討論點樣量度 L2 嘅熟練度,講到有啲語言測試可以好「唔真實」,會包含一啲完全語無倫次但啱文法嘅句子,淨係考學生識唔識啲文法規則。
Yazdandoost, Z., AmalSaleh, E., & Kafipour, R. (2014). The relationship among collocation knowledge and listening, speaking, reading and writing proficiency of Iranian EFL learners. Language, Individual & Society, 8, 408-419.
Beinborn, L., Zesch, T., & Gurevych, I. (2014). Predicting the difficulty of language proficiency tests. Transactions of the Association for Computational Linguistics, 2, 517-530.
Cysouw, M. (2013). Chapter Predicting language-learning difficulty. In Approaches to measuring linguistic differences. De Gruyter,呢篇文有講到「語言距離要點量度」嘅問題。亦可以睇吓佢用一隻語言「對 L1 係英文嘅人嚟講有幾難學」嚟量度嗰隻語言同英文差異幾大,當中提到地理位置、語系關係以及好幾隻其他因素,講到呢啲因素同估計嘅語言距離有顯著嘅統計相關。
Chan, R. K., & Leung, J. H. (2020). Why are lexical tones difficult to learn?: Insights from the incidental learning of tone-segment connections. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 42(1), 33-59.
Rao, V. C. S. (2017). A brief study of words used in denotation and connotation. Journal for Research Scholars and Professionals of English Language Teaching, 1(1), 1-5.
Aoyama, Katsura; Flege, James Emil; Guion, Susan; Akahane-Yamada, Reiko; Yamada, Tsuneo (2004), "Perceived phonetic dissimilarity and L2 speech learning: the case of Japanese /r/ and English /l/ and /r/", Journal of Phonetics, 32 (2): 233-250.
Sinha, A., Banerjee, N., Sinha, A., & Shastri, R. K. (2009). Interference of first language in the acquisition of second language. Journal of Psychology and counseling, 1(7), 117-122.
Strange, W., & Dittmann, S. (1984). Effects of discrimination training on the perception of/rl/by Japanese adults learning English. Perception & psychophysics, 36(2), 131-145.
Schmid, M. S. (2023). The final frontier? Why we have been ignoring second language attrition, and why it is time we stopped. Language Teaching, 56(1), 73-93,有講到某啲語言知識學咗就好難唔記得:"... the remainder is immune to further losses for at least a quarter of a century, and much of that content survives for fifty years or longer."
Morgan-Short, K., Faretta-Stutenberg, M., Brill-Schuetz, K. A., Carpenter, H., & Wong, P. C. (2014). Declarative and procedural memory as individual differences in second language acquisition. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 17(1), 56-72.
Mickan, A., McQueen, J. M., & Lemhöfer, K. (2019). Bridging the gap between second language acquisition research and memory science: The case of foreign language attrition. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 13, 397.
Shortt, M., Tilak, S., Kuznetcova, I., Martens, B., & Akinkuolie, B. (2023). Gamification in mobile-assisted language learning: A systematic review of Duolingo literature from public release of 2012 to early 2020. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 36(3), 517-554.
Genesee, F. (1976). The Role of Intelligence in Second Language Learning 1. Language learning, 26(2), 267-280,篇文講咗呢幾句嘢:"...performance on the reading and language usage tests correlated with IQ level. On the other hand, performance on the tests of listening comprehension and interpersonal communication skills did not correlate with IQ level."
Cummins, J. (1980). The cross-lingual dimensions of language proficiency: Implications for bilingual education and the optimal age issue. TESOL quarterly, 175-187. 第 177 頁講到 cognitive/academic language proficiency (CALP) 同 Basic interpersonal communicative skills (BICS)。
Cummins, J. (1998). Immersion education for the millennium: What have we learned from 30 years of research on second language immersion? In M. R. Childs & R. M. Bostwick (Eds.) Learning through two languages: Research and practice. Second Katoh Gakuen International Symposium on Immersion and Bilingual Education. (pp. 34-47). Katoh Gakuen, Japan.