戦国時代の日本人の奴隷に焦点をあてた最初期の史学研究は岡本良知「十六世紀日欧交通史の研究」(1936年、改訂版1942-1944年)とされている[注 20][注 21][49]。バテレン追放令と奴隷貿易との関わりについては、いまだに岡本良知の説が言及されている[42]。日本の労働形態の歴史と、ポルトガル人の奴隷貿易との関連性についてはC・R・ボクサー「Fidalgos in the Far East (1550-1771)」(1948年)[50]が指摘しており、奴隷という用語に隠蔽されていた多様な労働形態(例えば傭兵や商人)の存在を明らかにした。
日本人奴隷と追放令に関する最新の研究成果として、ルシオ・デ・ソウザの著作「The Portuguese Slave Trade in Early Modern Japan」(2019年)[49][56]があるが、ソウザの著作の信頼性や文脈化には複数の問題点が指摘されている[注 26][注 28][注 30]。野心的な研究として高く評価される一方で、歴史学者ハリエット・ズーンドーファー[注 31]はポルトガル人の逸話、発言や報告にある信頼性の低い記述を貧弱な説明と共にそのまま引用していること、どこで得られた情報なのかを示す正確な参考文献を提示しないために検証不可能であり、書籍中での主張に疑念を抱かさせるといった批判をしている[64][注 32]。
1555年に「A Arte da Guerra do Mar」(海戦術)を出版したポルトガル人ドミニコ会修道士フェルナン・デ・オリヴェイラは異教徒との戦争であっても、キリスト教徒のものであった領土を侵略した国々に対してのみ行えるとした[76]。1556年に出版され、ジョアン3世 (ポルトガル王)宛に書かれたと見られる「Por que causas se pode mover guerra justa contra infieis」では、異教徒に対する正戦を宗教的なものでなく完全に政治的な行為とし、共同体の領地を占領したり、犯罪をしたものを罰するために行われるとしている[77]。
Cartas que os Padres e Irmaos da Companhia da Iesus, que andao nos Reynos de lapao escreverao aos da mesma Companhia da India, e Europa, desde anno de 1549 ate 1580. Primeiro Tomo, Evora 1598. f.435
Alejandro Valignano S. I. Sumario des las Cosas de Japon(1583). Adiciones de l sumario de Japon (1592). editados por jose Luis Alvarez-Taladriz. Tokyo 1954. Introduction. p. 70.
Thomas Nelson(2004).“Slavery in Medieval Japan”.Monumenta Nipponica(Sophia University)59(4): 463-492.ISSN00270741.JSTOR25066328.https://www.jstor.org/stable/250663282024年3月14日閲覧.""As early as 1555, complaints were made by the Church that Portuguese merchants were taking Japaense slave girls with them back to Portugal and living with them there in sin....Political disunity in Japan, however, together with the difficulty that the Portuguese Crown faced in enforcing its will in the distant Indies, the ready availability of human merchandise, and the profits to be made from the trade meant that the chances were negligible of such a ban actually being enforced. In 1603 and 1605, the citizens of Goa protested against the law, claiming that it was wrong to ban the traffic in slaves who had been legally bought. Eventually, in 1605, King Philip of Spain and Portugal issued a document that was a masterpiece of obfuscation intended both to pacify his critics in Goa demanding the right to take Japanese slaves and the Jesuits, who insisted that the practice be banned.""
OKAMOTO Yoshitomo. Jūroku Seiki Nichiō Kōtsūshi no Kenkyū. Tokyo: Kōbunsō, 1936 (revised edition by Rokkō Shobō, 1942 and 1944, and reprint by Hara Shobō, 1969, 1974 and 1980). pp. 728-730
COSTA, João Paulo Oliveira e. O Cristianismo no Japão e o Episcopado de D. Luís Cerqueira. PhD thesis. Lisbon: Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 1998, p. 312. Sousa indicates the same letters, but he mistakenly attributed them to Filipe II, Filipe III’s father. See SOUSA, Lúcio de. Escravatura e Diáspora Japonesa nos séculos XVI e XVII. Braga: NICPRI, 2014, p. 298.
Boxer, C. R. (Charles Ralph); Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation. UK; Commonwealth Branch; Fundação Oriente; Discoveries Commission(1993)(英語).The Christian century in Japan, 1549-1650.Aspects of Portugal.Carcanet in association with the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, The Discoveries Commission, Lisbon, the Fundação Oriente, Lisbon.ISBN9780520027022.""But since the Portuguese are unwilling to do this, and they often go to places against the padres` wishes, there is always much jealousy and rivalry between these lords, from which follow in turn to great toil and moil to the padres and to Christianity. And, moreover, it sometimes happens that the Portguese go with their ships to the fiefs of heathen lords who bitterly persecute the padres and Christianity, wrecking churches and burning images, which causes great scandal and contempt of the Christian religion.""
Harald Fischer-Tiné(2003).“'White women degrading themselves to the lowest depths': European networks of prostitution and colonial anxieties in British India and Ceylon ca. 1880–1914”.Indian Economic and Social History Review40(2): 163–90 [175–81].doi:10.1177/001946460304000202.
Handbook of Christianity in Japan / edited by Mark R. Mullins. p. cm. — (Handbook of oriental studies, Section 5, Japan; v. 10) ISBN 90-04-13156-6 I. Japan—Church history. I. Series. pp. 251-252, "A more antagonistic dynamic between Shinto and Christianity in the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries is more easily identified. Early evidence is to be found, for example, in Hideyoshi's expulsion edict of 1587 and his 1591 letter to the Governor General of Goa (Gonoi 1990, 150ñ1). In both, Hideyoshi deploys Shinto symbolism to justify the expulsion from Japan of Christianity and its missionaries. Item 1 of the edict reads: Japan is the Land of the Gods. Diffusion here from the Kirishitan Country of a pernicious doctrine is most undesirable. His 1591 letter begins in the same vein. The fact is that our land is the land of the godsîóand then proceeds to an exposition of what Takagi Shÿsaku (1993) has identified as Yoshida Shinto theories of the origins of the universe. Asao Naohiro has observed that Hideyoshi was consciously constructing the idea of Japan as land of the gods as a counter and response to the idea of Europe as land of the Christian God. Ieyasu's letters to the Governor General of the Philippines in 1604 and the Governor General of Mexico in 1612 articulate the same ideas about Christianity's incompatibility with Japan as shinkoku, the land of the gods (Asao 1991, 108ñ18; Gonoi 1990, 203ñ5). More research needs to be done on this linkage between the Christian proscription and Shinto ideas, but it would not be surprising, given the nature of the nativistic dynamic, if counter-Christian concerns were somewhere present in the anxiety of both Hideyoshi and Ieyasu to have themselves deified and venerated after their deaths. "
Sources of Japanese Tradition, vol. 2, 1600 to 2000, edited by Wm. Theodore de Bary, Carol Gluck, and Arthur E. Tiedemann, New York: Columbia University Press, 2005. pp. 169-170
Guillaume, Xavier. “Misdirected Understandings: Narrative Matrices in the Japanese Politics of Alterity Toward the West.” Contemporary Japan, Volume 15, Issue 1. Japanstudien: Jahrbuch des Deutschen Instituts für Japanstudien 15 (2003): p. 99.
Sansom, George Bailey, Sir(1965).The Western world and Japan.CHaddon Craftsmen, Inc.p.129.""From his standpoint as a dispotic ruler he (=Hideyoshi) was undoubtedly right to regard Christian propaganda as subversive, for no system can survive unchanged once the assumptions upon which it is based are undermined. However high their purpose, what the Jesuits were doing, in Japan as well as in India and China, was to challenge a national tradition and through it the existing political structure. This last is an animal that always defends itself when attacked, and consequently Hideyoshi's reaction, however deplorable, was to be expected and does not seem to need any fuller explanation.""
La colonia de japoneses en Manila en el marco de las relaciones de Filipinas y Japón en los siglos XVI y XVII, José Eugenio Borao Mateo, Revista anual de Literatura, Pensamiento e Historia, Metodología de la Enseñanza del Español como Lengua Extranjera y Lingüística de la Confederación Académica Nipona, Española y Latinoamericana, ISSN 1344-9109, Nº. 17, 2005, págs. 25-53, "Con ocasión de la llegada de los barcos de Matsuura de Hirado (1585) y de Ohmura de Nagasaki (1586), los japoneses que aún permanecían en Cagayan así como muchos de Lingayen, se desplazaron a Manila. Las primeras relaciones entre españoles y japoneses de Manila estuvieron marcadas por el recelo. Por un lugar estaban las sospechas sobre los verdaderos motivos de la llegada de barcos japoneses, ya que ello no casaba demasiado con la promulgación del decreto de expulsión de misioneros cristianos en 1587, es decir, de los jesuitas portugueses venidos de Macao. Ciertamente, el decreto no tuvo grandes consecuencias, ya que los misioneros disminuyeron sus apariciones públicas, e Hideyoshi se dio por satisfecho. Pero, las sospechas en Manila se agravaron con los dos barcos que llegaron en 1587. En el primero de ellos, perteneciente al japonés Joan Gayo, la tripulación resultó sospechosa de complicidad en una insurrección de nativos, liderada por Agustín Legazpi. Algunos fueron arrestados y, en particular, el intérprete japonés Dionisio Fernández fue ajusticiado el 13 de junio del año siguiente (1588)8. El segundo barco, de Matsuura de Hirado, llegó el 15 de julio con armas y provisiones. Aunque el capitán del barco llevaba un mensaje de buena voluntad de su señor Matsuura y de su hermano, cuyo nombre cristiano era Gaspar, esta vez los españoles tomaron precauciones y los 40 marineros de la tripulación fueron atendidos por la iglesia de Manila y tras acabar sus negocios se marcharon."
La colonia de japoneses en Manila en el marco de las relaciones de Filipinas y Japón en los siglos XVI y XVII, José Eugenio Borao Mateo, Revista anual de Literatura, Pensamiento e Historia, Metodología de la Enseñanza del Español como Lengua Extranjera y Lingüística de la Confederación Académica Nipona, Española y Latinoamericana, ISSN 1344-9109, Nº. 17, 2005, págs. 25-53, "En 1589, fueron 30 ó 40 japoneses los que llegaron a Manila. Iban con vestimenta de peregrinos, para visitar las iglesias del país. Llevaban rosarios en el cuello y se movían con gran penitencia. Anduvieron 15 leguas alrededor de Manila y sus esteros, reconociéndolo todo. No se les molestó y se acabaron marchando. El gobernador fue de los que creyó a posteriori que habían venido en misión de espionaje, y con los datos que hubieran obtenido, tras contrastarlos con los de otros de los comerciantes, “se [habría] conocido en Japón la riqueza y la flaqueza de los naturales y la gente española que había para defender las Islas”9. Era el inicio del expansionismo de Hideyoshi10, y los españoles pensaron que también podrían ser objeto de un ataque japonés, y, en previsión de ello, Gómez Pérez Dasmariñas dio instrucciones, a principios de 1592, para preparar la defensa. Una de las medidas adoptadas fue congregar a todos los japoneses residentes de Manila en un barrio extramuros, el de Dilao, confiscarles sus armas y limitar su libre movilidad por la ciudad. La medida no parecía vana, a juzgar por las embajadas de Japón que llegaron a continuación a Manila."
「Handbook of Christianity in Japan / edited by Mark R. Mullins. p. cm. — (Handbook of oriental studies, Section 5, Japan; v. 10) ISBN 90-04-13156-6 I. Japan—Church history. I. Series. p. 9-11
Never Imagine Yourself to be Otherwise: Filipino Image of Japan over the Centuries, Elpidio STA. ROMANA and Ricardo T. JOSE, Asian Studies 29 (1991), pp. 67-68, "In 1591, a Japanese named Harada Magoshichiro was reported to have studied parts of the Philippines and recommended that Hideyoshi conquers the Philippines. Hideyoshi made concrete plans but sent an emissary the following year to Manila and demanded that the Spaniards become his vassals and pay tribute; otherwise he would invade the Philippines. He has just invaded Korea, and the poorly defended Spaniards could only reply that they sought friendship with Japan. Japanese ships entering Manila were checked thoroughly to make sure they carried no weapons. The Japanese community in Manila was disarmed and resettled outside Manila in a place called Dilao district. The next year, the Spaniards tried to guard their north flank by invading Taiwan but a typhoon thwarted that expedition. Later, Hideyoshi also sent a request to the Spanish authorities in the Philippines for shipbuilders but was refused by the Spaniards who realized that they will be used to build warships. The apprehensive Spaniards sought reinforcements from Mexico. 10 The Japanese were also suspicious of Spanish attempts to proselyte in Japan. This mutual suspicion - Spain fearing a Japanese invasion, Japan suspicious of Spanish evangelization and fearful that Japan might be involved in power conflicts in Europe- was to continue into the early 17th century."
Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 282, "Forced labor was a sub product of these struggles, and the Japanese slave market became dependent not only on Chinese and Koreans captured by Wakō, but also on servants captured domestically."
da Silva Ehalt, Rômulo (2017). Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan (Thesis). Tesis Doctoral, Tokyo University of Foreign Studies. p.345-346., "The description abounds in horror and awe. The horrific scenario described instantly reminds contemporary readers of the horrors of the slave trade between Africa and the Americas. However, there are issues that may be raised to question the text’s accuracy. The chronicle sounds somewhat fantastic when describing the eating habits of the Portuguese. In fact, the description of Europeans as raw meat-eating monsters was quite common in East Asia."
CRUZ, Frei Gaspar da (auth.) and LOUREIRO, Rui Manuel (ed.). Tratado das Coisas da China (Évora, 1569-1570). Lisbon: Biblioteca editores Independentes, 2010, p. 177.
Human Trafficking and Piracy in Early Modern East Asia: Maritime Challenges to the Ming Dynasty Economy, 1370–1565, Harriet Zurndorfer, Comparative Studies in Society and History (2023), 1–24 doi:10.1017/S0010417523000270, p. 13, "The wokou also engaged in human trafficking. In 1556, the Zhejiang coastal commander Yang Yi sent his envoy Zheng Shungong (flourished in the sixteenth century) to Japan to ask Kyushu authorities to suppress piracy along the Chinese littoral. When Zheng arrived, he found in Satsuma some two to three hundred Chinese working as slaves. Originally from southern Fujian prefectures, they were kept by Japanese families who had bought them from the wokou some twenty years before.61"
Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 277, "Chinese forced labor brought to Japan via these pirates is Zhèng Shùn-gōng 鄭舜功’s Rìběn Yíjiàn 日本一鑑. The book was compiled during Zhèng’s six-month trip to Bungo 豊後 in 1556, during the height of the Wakō activities in the region. In the section describing captives in Japan, Zhèng mentions that in Takasu 高洲, southern Kyushu, there were about two to three hundred Chinese people, “treated like cattle”, originally from Fúzhōu 福州, Xīnghuà 興化, Quánzhōu 泉州, Zhāngzhōu 漳州 and other areas serving as slaves in the region.910"
Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p.274-275, "[Those from Satsuma, seeing that they were so successful in their intent,started to burn, destroy and devastate throughout those lands of Nangun and otherwere they went through, that nothing would stand still, and those who resisted alittle soon were killed. And what was not the least shameful thing, but the greatest shame, was to see the great crowd of people they would take captured, especially women, boys and girls, to whom they committed the greatest cruelties, and among these there was a great number of Christians.].
Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 275, "The scenario is confirmed by the diary of Uwai Kakken 上井覚兼, a bushi at the service of the Shimazu clan. In the entry for the 12th day of the 7th month of Tenshō 14 –August 26th 1586 – he writes:「一、十二日、早旦打立、湯之浦ヘ着候、路次すから、手負なとに行合候、其外、濫妨人なと・女・童なと数十人引つれかへり候ニ、道も去あえす候」903"
Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 333, "In conclusion, the interrogatory sent by Hideyoshi shows that the ruler was more concerned with economic aspects and the impact of the way Jesuits acted in Japan rather than moral issues. The depletion of the fields of Kyushu from human and animal labor force was a serious issue to the local economy. This conclusion overturns what has been stated by the previous historiography, since Okamoto, who defended that Hideyoshi, upon arriving in Kyushu, discovered for the first time the horrors of the slave trade and, moved by anger, ordered its suspension.1053 However, as we saw before, the practice was much older and most certainly known in the whole archipelago, although apparently restricted to Kyushu. Because the Kanpaku consolidated his rule over the island, conditions were favorable for him to enact such orders."
Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p.333, "The Kanpaku made three irrefutable offers to the Jesuits, effectively establishing the conditions for them to stay in the archipelago."
Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. pp. 330-331 ,"Fróis was, in fact, explaining his audience that Hideyoshi’s was poised to demand the return of people who were displaced by events such as war, kidnapping, or even people who had voluntarily fled their village...And the order for return of laborers to one’s fief was one of the necessary maneuvers to guarantee these conditions. These people could be displaced not only by conflict or kidnappings, but also by fleeing economic and social conditions. 1050 These were moves occurring in all Japanese territory and were not restricted to areas of Kyushu."
Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 328 ,"He explains the necessity they had of cows and horses in the country, as an important resource for war and manual labor. Hideyoshi also explains that eating these animals could deplete the land of this important resource. Once more, the ruler makes an irrefutable offer to the priests: if the Portuguese and the missionaries could not live without eating meat, Hideyoshi would order the construction of a facility to keep hunted animals to be consumed by the foreigners."
Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 366, "First, it is important to consider the format chosen by the missionaries. As Nina Chordas explains, early modern dialogues were a quasi-fictional genre, in the sense that they insisted on being accepted as an entity “with some agency in the actual, material world”. As a literary genre, the dialogue was the result of a “general distrust of imaginative literature” in the late Renaissance, thus offering an alternative for seducing the rational mind.1151 These texts were, as pointed by Jon R. Snyder, “never transcriptions of conversations or debates that actually occurred (although this is one of their enabling fictions); no unmediated traces of orality can be discovered in dialogue, except in the form of carefully constructed illusion.”1152"
Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan、Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, p.40-47, "According to Maki, the Kanpaku was more concerned with securing labor force in Japan than considering ethical issues regarding the treatment slaves could have been receiving from their European masters.98"
Thomas Nelson, “Slavery in Medieval Japan,” Monumenta Nipponica59, no. 4 (2004): pp. 479-480, "Fujiki provides a wealth of sources to show just how common the practice of abducting slaves was. Koyo gunkan 甲陽軍鑑, for instance, offers a graphic account of the great numbers of women and children seized by the Takeda army after the Battle of Kawanakajima 川中島 of 1553:.... Hojo godaiki 北条五代記 reveals how systematized the process of ransoming and abduction could become... Reports by the Portuguese corroborate such accounts. In 1578, the Shimazu 島津 armies overran the Otomo 大友 territories in northern Kyushu."
Lúcio de SOUSA, The Portuguese Slave Trade in Early Modern Japan. Merchants, Jesuits and Japanese, Chinese, and Korean Slaves, Leiden / Boston, Brill, 2019, ISBN 978-90-04-36580-3
Guillaume Carré, «Lúcio de Sousa, The Portuguese Slave Trade in Early Modern Japan. Merchants, Jesuits and Japanese, Chinese, and Korean Slaves», Esclavages & Post-esclavages (En ligne), 4 | 2021, mis en ligne le 10 mai 2021, consulté le 26 août 2024. URL: http://journals.openedition.org/slaveries/3641; DOI: https://doi.org/10.4000/slaveries.3641, "En revanche, on peut regretter que, se focalisant sur des sources primaires, mais aussi secondaires, en langue occidentale, l’auteur n’ait pas plus exploité les résultats d’une recherche japonaise déjà longue, sur les pratiques esclavagistes dans l’archipel ou à ses marges à la fin de la période médiévale et au XVIIe siècle. Il en cite pourtant certains représentants dans sa bibliographie: on y lit ainsi le nom de Murai Shōsuke, qui a étudié cette question dans le cadre de la piraterie japonaise, mais on s’étonne de ne pas trouver plus de mentions de travaux sur l’asservissement et la vente de captifs lors des guerres féodales dans l’archipel (comme ceux de Fujiki Hisashi, par exemple). L’auteur reste allusif sur ces pratiques locales; pourtant, les exposer plus précisément aurait permis aux lecteurs peu au fait de l’histoire sociale japonaise, de se familiariser avec un contexte insulaire initial où la vente des êtres humains ne semble pas avoir été rare, et où les relations de dépendance et de sujétion se distinguaient souvent mal de la servitude, avant que l’emploi salarié et la domesticité à gage ne prennent leur essor sous les Tokugawa: bref des conditions qui, jointes à l’anarchie politique, offraient aux trafiquants d’esclaves portugais un terreau favorable pour leurs affaires. "
Chevaleyre, Claude. "Beyond Maritime Asia. Ideology, Historiography, and Prospects for a Global History of Slaving in Early-Modern Asia". Slavery and Bondage in Asia, 1550–1850: Towards a Global History of Coerced Labour, edited by Kate Ekama, Lisa Hellman and Matthias van Rossum, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2022, pp. 31-48. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110777246-003, p.31
Silva Ehalt, Rômulo da. "Suspicion and Repression: Ming China, Tokugawa Japan, and the End of the Japanese-European Slave Trade (1614–1635)". Slavery and Bondage in Asia, 1550–1850: Towards a Global History of Coerced Labour, edited by Kate Ekama, Lisa Hellman and Matthias van Rossum, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2022, pp. 213-230. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110777246-012, p.215, "Despite showing the continuity of Japanese slavery, Sousa insists on the importance of the 1607 Portuguese law for the end of the trade. Lúcio de Sousa, Escravatura e Diáspora Japonesa nos Séculos XVI e XVII (Braga: NICPRI, 2014): 156–61; Sousa, The Portuguese Slave Trade: 426, 538, 542. As for numbers, for instance, the presence of Japanese individuals in Mexico City seems to have increased sharply after 1617, while records of Asians spread throughout the world suggest that there were enslaved or formerly enslaved Japanese in the Americas until the late seventeenth century. Out of the 35 Japanese Oropeza Keresey lists as living in Mexico City in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, only four arrived prior to 1617. Sousa’s lists of 28 Japanese individuals spread around the globe between 1599 and 1642, which he claims to have been enslaved, suggests a similar pattern. Sousa, The Portuguese Slave Trade: 210–59; Deborah Oropeza Keresey, “Los ‘indios chinos’ en la Nueva España: la inmigración de la nao de China, 1565–1700” (PhD diss., El Colégio de México, 2007): 257–91"
Human Trafficking and Piracy in Early Modern East Asia: Maritime Challenges to the Ming Dynasty Economy, 1370–1565, Harriet Zurndorfer, Comparative Studies in Society and History (2023), 1–24 doi:10.1017/S0010417523000270
(書評)The Portuguese Slave Trade in Early Modern Japan: Merchants, Jesuits and Japanese, Chinese, and Korean Slaves, written by Lúcio De Sousa, Harriet Zurndorfer, Journal of early modern history, 2020, pp. 181-195, "This is a deeply unsatisfactory book. The author has a penchant for writing in the first-person plural, which results in an almost child-like storytelling mode of exposition, peppered with a certain conspiratorial tone, rather than giving a systematic and intelligible analysis of the data. Much data cannot be verified because the author does not offer the exact references from where the information may be found, and thus his claims may raise suspicion. The feeble narrative cannot absorb the anecdotal, curiously pompous details of testimonies, remarks, and judgements of the Portuguese rapporteurs.
Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 86, "Oliveira states that not all non-Christians could become objects of a just war. He declares that Christians could not declare war against those who were never Christians themselves, and who did not take territories from Christians or performed any detrimental act against Christianity. In this group, Oliveira includes Jews, Muslims and gentiles who never heard of Christ, and who should not be converted by force, but rather be persuaded to conversion, via example and justice. He goes on to classify as tyranny the act of taking their lands, capture their possessions and any aggression against those who do not proffer any blasphemy against Christ or do not resist to their own evangelization261. In effect, Oliveira distinguishes non-Christians from Northern Africa from those of other areas, such as India, thus pragmatically arguing that wars were just only against those who in fact occupied formerly Christian territories262."
Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. pp. 86-87, "Traditionally dated as written in 1556, it compiles the necessary conditions upon which an authority could declare just war against the non-Christians, and more specifically how the Portuguese crown was to deal with the natives in Brazil264....Based on Aristotle and Aquinas, it states that a perfect community had the power necessary to punish those who occupy the community’s territory or make any offense against it267....As for just war, the document repeats there were two main reasons that could justify warfare: to make justice and take back what has been unjustly taken, and to address an offense made against the community. Once more, there is no religious justification, and the argument is entirely political."
Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. pp. 522-523, "The Spanish jurist thus registers that the enslavement of Japanese and Chinese was admitted as far as it was temporary, and that their servitude was fundamentally different from perpetual slavery. This difference is reinforced by the wording of his Latin text: while Asian slavery is called iustae captivitas, Japanese and Chinese servitude is expressly referred as temporali famulitium, temporal servitude. These were not people enslaved as a result of captivity in war, nor were to be understood as common slaves...Also, the legitimacy of these servants is provided by the understanding that local customs and laws were just according to European standards. This shows a line of interpretation close to what Valignano defended until 1598 in his idea of Japanese slavery’s tolerability."
Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 473, "Next, Cerqueira deals with the issue of voluntary servitude, which here most probably refers to the practice of nenkihōkō 年季奉公 in Japan. The bishop makes it clear that the Japanese fulfilled all the conditions prescribed by moral theology for voluntary servitude, as for example the six points defined by Silvestre Mazzolini.1446"
Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, Jesuit Arguments for Voluntary Slavery in Japan and Brazil, Brazilian Journal of History, Volume: 39, Number: 80, Jan-Apr. 2019., p.10
BRAH, Cortes 566 (9/2666), maço 21, f. 275. RUIZ DE MEDINA, Juan G. Orígenes de la Iglesia Catolica Coreana desde 1566 hasta 1784 según documentos inéditos de la época. Rome: Institutum Historicum S.I., 1986, p. 114-22.
Servitutem Levem et Modici Temporis Esse Arbitrantes: Jesuit Schedulae & Japanese Limited-Term Servitude in Gomes Vaz’s De mancipiis Indicis, Stuart M. McManus, BPJS, 2018, II, 4, 77-99
BRAH, Cortes 566 (9/2666), maço 21, f. 273-276v. Pagès in PAGÈS, Léon. Histoire de la religion chrétienne au Japon – Seconde Partie, Annexes. Paris: Charles Douniol, 1870, p. 70-9. SOUSA, Lúcio de. “Dom Luís de Cerqueira e a escravatura no Japão em 1598.” Brotéria, 165. Braga, 2007, pp. 245-61.
PÉREZ, Lorenzo. Fr. Jerónimo de Jesús: Restaurador de las Misiones del Japón – sus cartas y relaciones (1595-1604). Florence: Collegii S. Bonaventurae, 1929, p. 47.
OKAMOTO Yoshitomo. Jūroku Seiki Nichiō Kōtsūshi no Kenkyū. Tokyo: Kōbunsō, 1936 (revised edition by Rokkō Shobō, 1942 and 1944, and reprint by Hara Shobō, 1969, 1974 and 1980). pp. 730-2
Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Doctoral Dissertation, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017., pp. 486-487, "Four days later, the Bishop took the pen again to write another letter, now addressed to the King, before the ships left to Macao. Thus, Cerqueira started his lobbying campaign to obtain formal secular legal actions against the slave trade...This letter must be read as an appendix to the copy of the September 4th 1598 gathering memorandum sent to the king. Cerqueira here confirms that, since the excommunication issued by Martins, there was already intent of putting an end to the license system. The final confirmation of the end of the system came with the orders sent by the general of the order, Claudio Acquaviva, via the Philippines, eight days after Gil de la Mata arrived in Japan in August 1598."
Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Doctoral Dissertation, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017., p. 481, "The issue of slavery was not restricted to the structure of the mission alone or to a theological debate anymore – express orders from the higher echelons of the order had seemingly decided its fate already."
Silva Ehalt, Rômulo da. "Suspicion and Repression: Ming China, Tokugawa Japan, and the End of the Japanese-European Slave Trade (1614–1635)". Slavery and Bondage in Asia, 1550–1850: Towards a Global History of Coerced Labour, edited by Kate Ekama, Lisa Hellman and Matthias van Rossum, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2022, pp. 213-230. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110777246-012, p.217, "In spite of this assertion, the fact is that the Japanese-European slave trade continued for a number of years beyond this date.7"
Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 404, "All the Christian daimyō became involved in the conflict because of their subjection to a tyrannical ruler: Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Valignano justifies that they were dragged into war because of the risks that refusing to enter the battlefield represented to the security of their republics. They were good Christians but forced to enter in an unjust war because they were responsible rulers of their kingdoms, according to the Visitor’s justification.126"
Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 445, "In Japan there is the universal custom, accepted since ancient times, according to which those who are more powerful attempt to eliminate those of less power, and take over their land and put under their dominion. Because of this [custom], we can hardly find true and natural lords in Japan.1400"
Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. pp. 444-445, "According to it, analysis of Japanese practices using European civil and canonical law results in a fruitless effort, and all Japanese lords would be taken as illegitimate according to any legal principle. Because of the custom of overtaking militarly lands without following European notions of just war, it was impossible to find “ueri et naturales domini” [legitimate and natural lords]. It is interesting to notice that the missionaries concluded that even natural law was useless to justify Japanese military territorial conquests. They also suggest that, because of the political structure of Japanese society, no lord could achieve the power of the Emperor, here referred as the descendant of the first king of Japan, and which he understands to be the only legitimate land owner in the archipelago."
Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 445, "The issue raised by the questionnaire is whether land possessions could be retained in good conscience. Of course, its concern with the conscience of the lord means that the missionaries were in reality worried with local Christian lords and their territorial conquests – whether converts could be forgiven for conquering land militarily or if they should be admonished to return these. In fact, it warns that any attempt to make them restitute an illegitimate conquest would fail, as they themselves considered these to be legitimately owned and conquered. The problem, thus, is whether Jesuits should dissimulate and pretend to ignore this issue."
Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 450, "If the missionaries were to advice local lords on matters of war, considering they were following their customs and, therefore, acting in good faith, the only option for the Jesuits was to act deceitfully, avoid the issue and offer non-answers that could not compromise their mission and the souls and consciences of Japanese Christians. The main problem here to the Japan Jesuits was the control they exerted on the level of knowledge Japanese converts had regarding Christian doctrine. If the priests spoke freely about all religious matters, they would create a situation of conflict between local Japanese customs and Christian dogmas."
Rômulo Ehalt, Geninka and Slavery: Jesuit Casuistry and Tokugawa Legislation on Japanese Bondage (1590s–1620s), Itinerario (2023), 47, 342–356 doi:10.1017/S0165115323000256, "This was due not to theoretical or legal reasons, but to the lack of authoritative power held by Jesuits in Japan. As argued numerous times by the visitor of the vice-province, Valignano, missionaries could not expect positive outcomes from their reprimands and admonitions because of their limited capacity to alter or influence the courses of action taken by Japanese Christians, particularly powerful individuals, when facing moral doubts.46 "
Rômulo Ehalt, Geninka and Slavery: Jesuit Casuistry and Tokugawa Legislation on Japanese Bondage (1590s–1620s), Itinerario (2023), 47, 342–356 doi:10.1017/S0165115323000256, p. 354, "The same suggestion was repeated in other cases. For instance, those who offered themselves to work in exchange for protection during events like famines and natural disasters were often considered genin in Japanese society, but confessors were to admonish penitents that they should free these genin upon the completion of enough labour to pay for the amount of food, clothing, and shelter provided."
Rômulo Ehalt, Geninka and Slavery: Jesuit Casuistry and Tokugawa Legislation on Japanese Bondage (1590s–1620s), Itinerario (2023), 47, 342–356 doi:10.1017/S0165115323000256, "Because of this disadvantage, there was the need to create grey areas where missionaries could let go of otherwise inadmissible situations. Hence, from the get-go, the debate envisioned three outcomes: forms of Japanese bondage equal to slavery; situations that were not the same as slavery but could be tolerated by the missionaries; and intolerable cases."
Rômulo Ehalt, Geninka and Slavery: Jesuit Casuistry and Tokugawa Legislation on Japanese Bondage (1590s–1620s), Itinerario (2023), 47, 342–356 doi:10.1017/S0165115323000256, pp. 352-353, "Rescuing people condemned to death could result in tolerable slavery, but the condemnation had to be unjust—a conclusion evocative of the Mediterranean and Atlantic doctrine of rescate. In that case, a Christian could offer a fair ransom and, since no one should be forced to give his or her money for free, the benefactor could hold the rescued person in exchange as their servant, especially when some spiritual good came as a result of such transaction"
Rômulo Ehalt, Geninka and Slavery: Jesuit Casuistry and Tokugawa Legislation on Japanese Bondage (1590s–1620s), Itinerario (2023), 47, 342–356 doi:10.1017/S0165115323000256, pp. 353-354
Rômulo Ehalt, Geninka and Slavery: Jesuit Casuistry and Tokugawa Legislation on Japanese Bondage (1590s–1620s), Itinerario (2023), 47, 342–356 doi:10.1017/S0165115323000256, p. 354,"Similar argument was made in the discussion of the case of women who had fled their fathers or husbands and sought shelter in the local lord’s house. While Japanese custom accepted that these women could be trans- formed into genin by the lord, the Goa theologians established that they could be considered enslaved only when they had been accused of and condemned for a crime. Otherwise, missionaries should campaign for their liberation in advising Japanese Christians through confession."
Rômulo Ehalt, Geninka and Slavery: Jesuit Casuistry and Tokugawa Legislation on Japanese Bondage (1590s–1620s), Itinerario (2023), 47, 342–356 doi:10.1017/S0165115323000256, "Tolerance was a rhetorical device closely related to dissimulation, a legal strategy tacitly approved by canon law that authorised missionaries to conform to local practices while adhering to established theological and legal principles, a much-needed rhetorical device for those attempting to accommodate the Christian dogma to local social dynamics.48"
Rômulo Ehalt, Geninka and Slavery: Jesuit Casuistry and Tokugawa Legislation on Japanese Bondage (1590s–1620s), Itinerario (2023), 47, 342–356 doi:10.1017/S0165115323000256, pp. 352-353, "Nevertheless, the authority of the Ritsuryō was always on the minds of early modern Japanese. In 1587, when a group of Japanese visiting Manila was questioned on bondage practices in their country, their response to the fate of genin children replicated the model established by the code.5"
Jesuits and the Problem of Slavery in Early Modern Japan, Rômulo da Silva Ehalt, 2017. p. 472, "Cerqueira said that these parents would be led to subject their children to slavery because they could not pay taxes demanded by non-Christian Japanese lords. However, the problem he had in Japan was that gentile rulers were creating this situation...On the other hand, the problem of definition of necessity also permeates this discussion. Cerqueira indicates that some children were sold not out of extreme necessity, but rather of great necessity. The issue here is relativism: given the local living standards, the Japanese were supposedly able to live in conditions that could be deemed extreme in other areas but were rather ordinary in the archipelago"
OM, Lib. 4, Tit. XVI; LARA, Silvia Hunold. ‘Legislação sobre escravos africanos na América portuguesa’. in: ANDRÉS-GALLEGO, Jose (Coord). Nuevas Aportaciones a la Historia Jurídica de Iberoamérica. Madrid: Fundación Histórica Tavera/Digibis/Fundación Hernando de Larramendi, 2000 (CD-Rom), p. 57. Tit. XCIX.
Visiones de un mundo diferente: Política, literatura de avisos y arte namban Imagen de portada del libro Visiones de un mundo diferente: Política, literatura de avisos y arte namban, Osami Takizawa (coord.), Antonio Míguez Santa Cruz (coord.), Centro Europeo para la Difusión de las Ciencias Sociales, 2015, ISBN 978-84-608-1270-8, p. 63, "Tras el edicto de expulsión de los jesuitas en 1587, Hideyoshi se interesó por abrir una posible vía de comercio que no pasase necesariamente por los portugueses y, puesto que el trato con los chinos seguía cerrado, las Filipinas eran una de las pocas alternativas disponibles; así, a partir de 1591 se autorizó el comercio con Manila9 . De todas formas, se trató de un lujo muy luctuante y bastante pobre, tal y como se extrae del reducido número de navíos comerciales japoneses llegados a la capital ilipina durante los años analizados en este artículo, diecisiete según nos dice el profesor Emilio Sola10. En cuanto a las mercancías intercambiadas, sabemos por los documentos castellanos que el principal negocio era el de la plata japonesa –Japón producía en ese momento nada menos que un tercio de la plata mundial11– a cambio de la seda china, con lo que realmente se trataba básicamente de hacer de intermediarios en el interrumpido comercio entre Japón y China. Aparte de esto, Filipinas importaba cáñamo, cobre, hierro, acero, plomo, salitre, mantas, pólvora, espadas, etc.12 y en Japón estaban muy interesados por cierto tipo de vasijas de cerámica ilipina."
Never Imagine Yourself to be Otherwise: Filipino Image of Japan over the Centuries, Elpidio STA. ROMANA and Ricardo T. JOSE, Asian Studies 29 (1991), pp. 67-68, "In 1587, an ill-fated Filipino anti-Spanish rebellion led by Don Agustin de Legaspi, Martin Panga and Magat Salamat took place in Manila and adjacent areas. The Filipino rebels got in touch with a Christian Japanese adventurer named Juan Gayo and enlisted him in a plan to use other armed Japanese to be disguised as traders stationed offshore. On signal, Gayo and his men were to attack from the sea and help the Filipinos drive the Spaniards out of Manila. But when the time of the attack came, Gayo either simply lost interest or betrayed the rebels. The Filipino rebels waited in vain for his help; meanwhile, the Spaniards discovered the plan, rounded up the leaders and executed them publicly. 9 The involvement of a Japanese naturally made the Spaniards more suspicious."
Cartas que os Padres e Irmaos da Companhia da Iesus, que andao nos Reynos de lapao escreverao aos da mesma Companhia da India, e Europa, desde anno de 1549 ate 1580. Primeiro Tomo, Evora 1598. f. 155.
アルメイダ、1564年10月14日付豊後発信書(Cartas que os Padres e Irmaos da Companhia da Iesus, que andao nos Reynos de lapao escreverao aos da mesma Companhia da India, e Europa, desde anno de 1549 ate 1580. Primeiro Tomo, Evora 1598.f.151v.)
Schwaller, John F. (October 2016). "Franciscan Spirituality and Mission in New Spain, 1524–1599: Conflict Beneath the Sycamore Tree (Luke 19:1–10) by Steven E. Turley (review)". The Americas. 73 (4): 520–522.
de Bary,Wm. Theodore(2005).“Part IV: The Tokugawa Peace”.Sources of Japanese Tradition: 1600 to 2000.Columbia University Press.pp.149.ISBN9780231518123
Never Imagine Yourself to be Otherwise: Filipino Image of Japan over the Centuries, Elpidio STA. ROMANA and Ricardo T. JOSE, Asian Studies 29 (1991), pp. 67-68, "In 1591, a Japanese named Harada Magoshichiro was reported to have studied parts of the Philippines and recommended that Hideyoshi conquers the Philippines. Hideyoshi made concrete plans but sent an emissary the following year to Manila and demanded that the Spaniards become his vassals and pay tribute; otherwise he would invade the Philippines. He has just invaded Korea, and the poorly defended Spaniards could only reply that they sought friendship with Japan. Japanese ships entering Manila were checked thoroughly to make sure they carried no weapons. The Japanese community in Manila was disarmed and resettled outside Manila in a place called Dilao district. The next year, the Spaniards tried to guard their north flank by invading Taiwan but a typhoon thwarted that expedition. Later, Hideyoshi also sent a request to the Spanish authorities in the Philippines for shipbuilders but was refused by the Spaniards who realized that they will be used to build warships. The apprehensive Spaniards sought reinforcements from Mexico. 10 The Japanese were also suspicious of Spanish attempts to proselyte in Japan. This mutual suspicion - Spain fearing a Japanese invasion, Japan suspicious of Spanish evangelization and fearful that Japan might be involved in power conflicts in Europe- was to continue into the early 17th century."
Francisco de Lorduy, statement incorporated in report by Governor Gómez Pérez Dasmariñas to the king of Spain on the second embassy to Japan, April–May 1593, in The Philippine Islands, 1493–1803, ed. Blair and Robertson, vol. 9, p. 39. The reference may be to Kiemon’s close associate Hasegawa Sōnin instead.
Turnbull, Stephen (2016) "Wars and Rumours of Wars: Japanese Plans to Invade the Philippines, 1593–1637," Naval War College Review (海軍大学校 (アメリカ合衆国)レビュー): Vol. 69: No. 4 , Article 10., p.5
Visiones de un Mundo Diferente Política, literatura de avisos y arte namban, Coordinadores: Osami Takizawa y Antonio Míguez Santa Cruz, Centro Europeo para la Difusión de las Ciencias Sociales, ISBN 978-84-608-1270-8, p. 80, "Tras el incidente del galeón San Felipe y la ejecución de los religiosos, en Manila se entendió que la relación de amistad a la que supuestamente se había llegado con Hideyoshi había terminado, por lo que se volvió a temer una invasión japonesa de las Filipinas –si es que alguna vez había desaparecido la sospecha. Así, se continuó trabajando en las defensas de Manila y su isla, e incluso se llegó a considerar nuevamente la conquista de Formosa. En un movimiento calcado a otros que se habían efectuado en el pasado, se decidió enviar una embajada a Japón para, nuevamente, ganar tiempo y tratar de recuperar tanto la carga coniscada del San Felipe –sumamente importante para la economía de las Filipinas– como los restos de los mártires de Nagasaki. Para ello, esta vez se preirió no elegir a un religioso como embajador y la tarea recayó en Luis de Navarrete, un militar muy cercano al Gobernador Tello."
Turnbull, Stephen (2016) "Wars and Rumours of Wars: Japanese Plans to Invade the Philippines, 1593–1637," Naval War College Review (海軍大学校 (アメリカ合衆国)レビュー): Vol. 69: No. 4 , Article 10., pp. 8-9
The perceived status of the Dutch as the shogun’s “loyal vassals” is brilliantly analysed in Adam Clulow, The Company and the Shogun: The Dutch Encounter with Tokugawa Japan (New York: Columbia Univ. Press, 2014).
Turnbull, Stephen (2016) "Wars and Rumours of Wars: Japanese Plans to Invade the Philippines, 1593–1637," Naval War College Review (海軍大学校 (アメリカ合衆国)レビュー): Vol. 69: No. 4 , Article 10., p.10-11