Syria

This article is about the modern state of Syria. For other uses, see Syria (disambiguation).

Not to be confused with Styria.

Syria,^[a] officially the Syrian Arab Republic,^[b] is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It is bounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east and southeast, Jordan to the south, and Israel and Lebanon to the southwest. It is a republic that consists of 14 governorates as subdivisions. Damascus is Syria's capital and largest city. With a population of 25.0 million, it is the 57th most populous country in the world and 8th most populuous in the Arab world. Syria is spread across an area of 185,180 square kilometres (71,500 sq mi), making it 87th largest country in the world.

Syrian Arab Republic ٱلْجُمْهُورِيَّةُ ٱلْعَرَبِيَّة ٱلْسُوْرِيَّة (Arabic) al-Jumhūriyya al-ʿArabiyya as-Sūriya
Flag Coat of arms
Motto: وَحْدَةٌ، حُرِّيَّةٌ، اِشْتِرَاكِيَّةٌ Waḥda, Ḥurriyya, Ishtirākiyya "Unity, Freedom, Socialism"
Anthem: حُمَاةَ الدِّيَارِ Ḥumāt ad-Diyār "Guardians of the Homeland"
Syria proper shown in dark green; Syria's territorial claims over the Turkish Hatay Province and the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights shown in light greenShow globe Show map of Syria
Capital and largest city	Damascus 33°30′N 36°18′E
Official languages	Arabic[1]
Ethnic groups [2][3][4]	90% Arabs 9% Kurds 1% others
Religion [2]	87% Islam 74% Sunni Islam 13% Alawism and other Shia Islam 10% Christianity 3% Druze
Demonym(s)	Syrian
Government	Unitary presidential republic[5] under a totalitarian[6] hereditary dictatorship
• President	Bashar al-Assad
• Vice President	Najah al-Attar Faisal Mekdad
• Prime Minister	Mohammad Ghazi al-Jalali
• Speaker of the People's Assembly	Hammouda Sabbagh
Legislature	People's Assembly
Establishment
• Arab Kingdom of Syria	8 March 1920
• State of Syria under French mandate	1 December 1924
• Syrian Republic	14 May 1930
• De jure independence	24 October 1945
• De facto independence	17 April 1946
• Left the United Arab Republic	28 September 1961
• Ba'ath Party takes power	8 March 1963
• Current constitution	27 February 2012
Area
• Total	185,180[7] km2 (71,500 sq mi) (87th)
• Water (%)	1.1
Population
• 2024 estimate	25,000,753[8] (57th)
• Density	118.3/km2 (306.4/sq mi) (70th)
GDP (PPP)	2015 estimate
• Total	$50.28 billion[9]
• Per capita	$2,900[9]
GDP (nominal)	2020 estimate
• Total	$11.08 billion[9]
• Per capita	$533
Gini (2022)	26.6[10] low inequality
HDI (2022)	0.557[11] medium (157th)
Currency	Syrian pound (SYP)
Time zone	UTC+3 (Arabia Standard Time)
Date format	dd/mm/yyyy (AD)
Drives on	right
Calling code	+963
ISO 3166 code	SY
Internet TLD	.sy سوريا.

A country of fertile plains, high mountains, and deserts, Syria is home to diverse ethnic and religious groups. Arabs are the largest ethnic group, and Sunni Muslims are the largest religious group. The name "Syria" historically referred to a wider region, broadly synonymous with the Levant, and known in Arabic as al-Sham. The modern state encompasses the sites of several ancient kingdoms and empires, including the Eblan civilization of the 3rd millennium BC. Damascus and Aleppo are cities of great cultural significance. During the Islamic rule, Damascus was the seat of the Umayyad Caliphate and a provincial capital for the Mamluk Sultanate in Egypt. The modern Syrian state was established in the mid-20th century after centuries of Ottoman rule, as a French Mandate. The newly created state represented the largest Arab state to emerge from the formerly Ottoman-ruled Syrian provinces. It gained de jure independence as a parliamentary republic in 1945 when the new Republic became a founding member of the United Nations, an act which legally ended the former French mandate. French troops departed in April 1946, granting de facto independence.

The post-independence period was tumultuous, with multiple military coup attempts shaking the country between 1949 and 1971. In 1958, Syria entered a brief union with Egypt, which was terminated in the 1961 coup d'état and was renamed as the Arab Republic of Syria in constitutional referendum. The 1963 coup d'état carried out by the military committee of the Ba'ath Party established a one-party state and ran Syria under emergency law from 1963 to 2011, effectively suspending constitutional protections for citizens. Internal power-struggles within Ba'athist factions caused further coups in 1966 and 1970, which eventually resulted in the seizure of power by Hafiz al-Assad. He effectively established an Alawi minority rule to consolidate power within his family. After Assad's death, his son Bashar al-Assad inherited the presidency in 2000. Since 2011, Syria has been embroiled in a multi-sided civil war, with involvement of different countries.^[c] Three political entities – the Syrian Interim Government, Syrian Salvation Government, and Rojava – have emerged in Syrian territory to challenge Assad's rule.

Syria is now the only country that is governed by Ba'athists, who advocate Arab socialism and Arab nationalism. The country's Ba'athist government is a totalitarian dictatorship with a comprehensive cult of personality around the Assad family, and has attracted widespread criticism for its severe domestic repression and war crimes. Being ranked 4th worst in the 2024 Fragile States Index, Syria is one of the most dangerous places for journalists. Freedom of press is extremely limited, and the country is ranked 2nd worst in 2024 World Press Freedom Index. Syria is the most corrupt country in the Middle East and North Africa and was ranked the 2nd lowest globally on the 2023 Corruption Perceptions Index. The country has also become the epicentre of a state-sponsored multi-billion dollar illicit drug cartel, the largest in the world.

Etymology

Main article: Name of Syria

Several sources indicate that the name Syria is derived from the 8th century BC Luwian term "Sura/i", and the derivative ancient Greek name: Σύριοι, Sýrioi, or Σύροι, Sýroi, both of which originally derived from Aššūr (Assyria) in northern Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq).^[13][14] However, from the Seleucid Empire (323–150 BC), this term was also applied to the Levant,^[15] and from this point the Greeks applied the term without distinction between the Assyrians of Mesopotamia and Arameans of the Levant.^[16][17] Mainstream modern academic opinion strongly favors the argument that the Greek word is related to the cognate Ἀσσυρία, Assyria, ultimately derived from the Akkadian Aššur.^[18] The Greek name appears to correspond to Phoenician ʾšr "Assur", ʾšrym "Assyrians", recorded in the 8th century BC Çineköy inscription.^[19]

The area designated by the word has changed over time. Classically, Syria lies at the eastern end of the Mediterranean, between Arabia to the south and Asia Minor to the north, stretching inland to include parts of Iraq, and having an uncertain border to the northeast that Pliny the Elder describes as including, from west to east, Commagene, Sophene, and Adiabene.^[20]

By Pliny's time, however, this larger Syria had been divided into a number of provinces under the Roman Empire (but politically independent from each other): Judaea, later renamed Palaestina in AD 135 (the region corresponding to modern-day Israel, the Palestinian Territories, and Jordan) in the extreme southwest; Phoenice (established in AD 194) corresponding to modern Lebanon, Damascus and Homs regions; Coele-Syria (or "Hollow Syria") and south of the Eleutheris river.^[21]

History

Main article: History of Syria

Ancient antiquity

Female figurine, 5000 BC Ancient Orient Museum

Since approximately the 11th millennium BC, Syria was one of the centers of Neolithic culture (known as Pre-Pottery Neolithic A), where agriculture and cattle breeding first began to appear. The site of Tell Qaramel in Aleppo Governorate has several round stone towers dated to 10650 BC, making them the oldest structures of this kind in the world.^[22][23] The Neolithic period (PPNB) is represented by rectangular houses of Mureybet culture. At the time of the pre-pottery Neolithic, people used containers made of stone, gyps, and burnt lime (Vaisselle blanche). The discovery of obsidian tools from Anatolia are evidence of early trade. The ancient cities of Hamoukar and Emar played an important role during the late Neolithic and Bronze Age. Archaeologists have demonstrated that civilization in Syria was one of the most ancient on earth, perhaps preceded by only that of Mesopotamia.

Ishqi-Mari, king of the Second Kingdom of Mari, circa 2300 BC

The earliest recorded indigenous civilization in the region was the Kingdom of Ebla^[24] near present-day Idlib, northern Syria. Ebla appears to have been founded around 3500 BC,^{[25][26][27][28][29]} and gradually built its fortune through trade with the Mesopotamian states of Sumer, Assyria, and Akkad, as well as with the Hurrian and Hattian peoples to the northwest, in Asia Minor.^[30] Gifts from Pharaohs, found during excavations, confirm Ebla's contact with Egypt. One of the earliest written texts from Syria is a trading agreement between Vizier Ibrium of Ebla and an ambiguous kingdom called Abarsal c. 2300 BC.^[31][32] Scholars believe the language of Ebla to be among the oldest known written Semitic languages after Akkadian. Recent classifications of the Eblaite language have shown that it was an East Semitic language, closely related to the Akkadian language.^[33] Ebla was weakened by a long war with Mari, and the whole of Syria became part of the Mesopotamian Akkadian Empire after Sargon of Akkad and his grandson Naram-Sin's conquests ended Eblan domination over Syria in the first half of the 23rd century BC.^[34][35]

By the 21st century BC, Hurrians settled in the northern east parts of Syria while the rest of the region was dominated by the Amorites. Syria was called the Land of the Amurru (Amorites) by their Assyro-Babylonian neighbors. The Northwest Semitic language of the Amorites is the earliest attested of the Canaanite languages. Mari reemerged during this period, and saw renewed prosperity until conquered by Hammurabi of Babylon. Ugarit also arose during this time, circa 1800 BC, close to modern Latakia. Ugaritic was a Semitic language loosely related to the Canaanite languages, and developed the Ugaritic alphabet,^[36] considered to be the world's earliest known alphabet. The Ugaritic kingdom survived until its destruction at the hands of the marauding Indo-European Sea Peoples in the 12th century BC in what was known as the Late Bronze Age Collapse which saw similar kingdoms and states witness the same destruction at the hand of the Sea Peoples.

Aleppo and the capital city Damascus are among the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world.^[37] Yamhad (modern Aleppo) dominated northern Syria for two centuries,^[38] although Eastern Syria was occupied in the 19th and 18th centuries BC by the Old Assyrian Empire ruled by the Amorite Dynasty of Shamshi-Adad I, and by the Babylonian Empire which was founded by Amorites. Yamhad was described in the tablets of Mari as the mightiest state in the near east and as having more vassals than Hammurabi of Babylon.^[38] Yamhad imposed its authority over Alalakh,^[39] Qatna,^[40] the Hurrians states and the Euphrates Valley down to the borders with Babylon.^[41] The army of Yamhad campaigned as far away as Dēr on the border of Elam (modern Iran).^[42] Yamhad was conquered and destroyed, along with Ebla, by the Indo-European Hittites from Asia Minor circa 1600 BC.^[43] From this time, Syria became a battle ground for various foreign empires, these being the Hittite Empire, Mitanni Empire, Egyptian Empire, Middle Assyrian Empire, and to a lesser degree Babylonia. The Egyptians initially occupied much of the south, while the Hittites, and the Mitanni, much of the north. However, Assyria eventually gained the upper hand, destroying the Mitanni Empire and annexing huge swathes of territory previously held by the Hittites and Babylon.

Syrians bringing presents to Pharaoh Tuthmosis III, as depicted in the tomb of Rekhmire, circa 1450 BCE (actual painting and interpretational drawing). They are labeled "Chiefs of Retjenu".^[44][45]

Around the 14th century BC, various Semitic peoples appeared in the area, such as the semi-nomadic Suteans who came into an unsuccessful conflict with Babylonia to the east, and the West Semitic speaking Arameans who subsumed the earlier Amorites. They too were subjugated by Assyria and the Hittites for centuries. The Egyptians fought the Hittites for control over western Syria; the fighting reached its zenith in 1274 BC with the Battle of Kadesh.^[46][47] The west remained part of the Hittite empire until its destruction c. 1200 BC,^[48] while eastern Syria largely became part of the Middle Assyrian Empire,^[49] who also annexed much of the west during the reign of Tiglath-Pileser I 1114–1076 BC. With the destruction of the Hittites and the decline of Assyria in the late 11th century BC, the Aramean tribes gained control of much of the interior, founding states such as Bit Bahiani, Aram-Damascus, Hamath, Aram-Rehob, Aram-Naharaim, and Luhuti. From this point, the region became known as Aramea or Aram. There was also a synthesis between the Semitic Arameans and the remnants of the Indo-European Hittites, with the founding of a number of Syro-Hittite states centered in north central Aram (Syria) and south central Asia Minor (modern Turkey), including Palistin, Carchemish and Sam'al.

Amrit Phoenician Temple

A Canaanite group known as the Phoenicians came to dominate the coasts of Syria, (and also Lebanon and northern Palestine) from the 13th century BC, founding city states such as Amrit, Simyra, Arwad, Paltos, Ramitha, and Shuksi. From these coastal regions, they eventually spread their influence throughout the Mediterranean, including building colonies in Malta, Sicily, the Iberian peninsula (modern Spain and Portugal), and the coasts of North Africa and most significantly, founding the major city-state of Carthage (in modern Tunisia) in the 9th century BC, which was much later to become the center of a major empire, rivaling the Roman Republic. Syria and the Western half of Near East then fell to the vast Neo Assyrian Empire (911 BC – 605 BC). The Assyrians introduced Imperial Aramaic as the lingua franca of their empire. This language was to remain dominant in Syria and the entire Near East until after the Arab Islamic conquest in the 7th and 8th centuries AD, and was to be a vehicle for the spread of Christianity. The Assyrians named their colonies of Syria and Lebanon Eber-Nari. Assyrian domination ended after the Assyrians greatly weakened themselves in a series of brutal internal civil wars, followed by attacks from: the Medes, Babylonians, Chaldeans, Persians, Scythians and Cimmerians. During the fall of Assyria, the Scythians ravaged and plundered much of Syria. The last stand of the Assyrian army was at Carchemish in northern Syria in 605 BC. The Assyrian Empire was followed by the Neo-Babylonian Empire (605 BC – 539 BC). During this period, Syria became a battle ground between Babylonia and another former Assyrian colony, that of Egypt. The Babylonians, like their Assyrian relations, were victorious over Egypt.

Classical antiquity

Main articles: Eber-Nari, Coele-Syria, Roman Syria, and Syria Palaestina

Ancient city of Palmyra before the war

Lands that constitute modern day Syria were part of the Neo-Babylonian Empire and had been annexed by the Achaemenid Empire in 539 BC. Led by Cyrus the Great, the Achaemenid Persians retained Imperial Aramaic as one of the diplomatic languages of their empire (539 BC – 330 BC), as well as the Assyrian name for the new satrapy of Aram/Syria Eber-Nari. Syria was later conquered by the Macedonian Empire which was ruled by Alexander the Great c. 330 BC, and consequently became Coele-Syria province of the Seleucid Empire (323 BC – 64 BC), with the Seleucid kings styling themselves 'King of Syria' and the city of Antioch being its capital starting from 240. Thus, it was the Greeks who introduced the name "Syria" to the region. Originally an Indo-European corruption of "Assyria" in northern Mesopotamia (Iraq), the Greeks used this term to describe not only Assyria itself but also the lands to the west which had for centuries been under Assyrian dominion.^[50] Thus in the Greco-Roman world both the Arameans of Syria and the Assyrians of Mesopotamia (modern day Iraq) to the east were referred to as "Syrians" or "Syriacs", despite these being distinct peoples in their own right, a confusion which would continue into the modern world. Eventually parts of southern Seleucid Syria were taken by the Jewish Hasmoneans dynasty upon the slow disintegration of the Hellenistic Empire.

Syria briefly came under Armenian control from 83 BC, with the conquests of the Armenian king Tigranes the Great, who was welcomed as a savior from the Seleucids and Romans by the Syrian people. However, Pompey the Great, a general of the Roman Empire, rode to Syria and captured Antioch, its capital, and turned Syria into a Roman province in 64 BC, thus ending Armenian control over the region which had lasted two decades. Syria prospered under Roman rule, being strategically located on the silk road, which gave it massive wealth and importance, making it the battleground for the rivaling Romans and Persians.

Roman Theatre at Bosra in the province of Arabia, present-day Syria

Temple of Jupiter, Damascus

Palmyra, a rich and sometimes powerful native Aramaic-speaking kingdom arose in northern Syria in the 2nd century; the Palmyrene established a trade network that made the city one of the richest in the Roman empire. Eventually, in the late 3rd century AD, the Palmyrene king Odaenathus defeated the Persian emperor Shapur I and controlled the entirety of the Roman East while his successor and widow Zenobia established the Palmyrene Empire, which briefly conquered Egypt, Syria, Palestine, much of Asia Minor, Judah and Lebanon, before being finally brought under Roman control in 273 AD.

The northern Mesopotamian Assyrian kingdom of Adiabene controlled areas of north east Syria between 10 AD and 117 AD, before it was conquered by Rome.^[51] The Aramaic language has been found as far afield as Hadrian's Wall in Ancient Britain,^[52] with an inscription written by a Palmyrene emigrant at the site of Fort Arbeia.^[53] Control of Syria eventually passed from the Romans to the Byzantines, with the split in the Roman Empire.^[30] The largely Aramaic-speaking population of Syria during the heyday of the Byzantine Empire was probably not exceeded again until the 19th century. Prior to the Arab Islamic Conquest in the 7th century AD, the bulk of the population were Arameans, but Syria was also home to Greek and Roman ruling classes, Assyrians still dwelt in the north east, Phoenicians along the coasts, and Jewish and Armenian communities were also extant in major cities, with Nabateans and pre-Islamic Arabs such as the Lakhmids and Ghassanids dwelling in the deserts of southern Syria. Syriac Christianity had taken hold as the major religion, although others still followed Judaism, Mithraism, Manicheanism, Greco-Roman Religion, Canaanite Religion and Mesopotamian Religion. Syria's large and prosperous population made Syria one of the most important of the Roman and Byzantine provinces, particularly during the 2nd and 3rd centuries (AD).^[54]

The ancient city of Apamea, an important commercial center and one of Syria's most prosperous cities in classical antiquity

Syrians held considerable amounts of power during the Severan dynasty. The matriarch of the family and Empress of Rome as wife of emperor Septimius Severus was Julia Domna, a Syrian from the city of Emesa (modern day Homs), whose family held hereditary rights to the priesthood of the god El-Gabal. Her great nephews, also Arabs from Syria, would also become Roman Emperors, the first being Elagabalus and the second, his cousin Alexander Severus. Another Roman emperor who was a Syrian was Philip the Arab (Marcus Julius Philippus), who was born in Roman Arabia. He was emperor from 244 to 249,^[54] and ruled briefly during the Crisis of the Third Century. During his reign, he focused on his home town of Philippopolis (modern day Shahba) and began many construction projects to improve the city, most of which were halted after his death.

Syria is significant in the history of Christianity; Saulus of Tarsus, better known as the Apostle Paul, was converted on the Road to Damascus and emerged as a significant figure in the Christian Church at Antioch in ancient Syria, from which he left on many of his missionary journeys.^[55]

Middle Ages

Muhammad's first interaction with the people and tribes of Syria was during the Invasion of Dumatul Jandal in July 626^[56] where he ordered his followers to invade Duma, because Muhammad received intelligence that some tribes there were involved in highway robbery and preparing to attack Medina itself.^[57] William Montgomery Watt claims that this was the most significant expedition Muhammad ordered at the time, even though it received little notice in the primary sources. Dumat Al-Jandal was 800 kilometres (500 mi) from Medina, and Watt says that there was no immediate threat to Muhammad, other than the possibility that his communications to Syria and supplies to Medina would be interrupted. Watt says "It is tempting to suppose that Muhammad was already envisaging something of the expansion which took place after his death", and that the rapid march of his troops must have "impressed all those who heard of it".^[58] William Muir also believes that the expedition was important as Muhammad followed by 1000 men reached the confines of Syria, where distant tribes had now learnt his name, while the political horizon of Muhammad was extended.^[56]

Umayyad fresco from Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbî, built in the early 7th century

By AD 640, Syria was conquered by the Arab Rashidun army led by Khalid ibn al-Walid. In the mid-7th century, the Umayyad dynasty, then rulers of the empire, placed the capital of the empire in Damascus. The country's power declined during later Umayyad rule; this was mainly due to totalitarianism, corruption and the resulting revolutions. The Umayyad dynasty was then overthrown in 750 by the Abbasid dynasty, which moved the capital of empire to Baghdad. Arabic – made official under Umayyad rule^[59] – became the dominant language, replacing Greek and Aramaic of the Byzantine era. In 887, the Egypt-based Tulunids annexed Syria from the Abbasids, and were later replaced by once the Egypt-based Ikhshidids and still later by the Hamdanids originating in Aleppo founded by Sayf al-Dawla.^[60]

The 1299 Battle of Wadi al-Khazandar. The Mongols under Ghazan defeated the Mamluks.

Sections of Syria were held by French, English, Italian and German overlords between 1098 and 1189 AD during the Crusades and were known collectively as the Crusader states among which the primary one in Syria was the Principality of Antioch. The coastal mountainous region was also occupied in part by the Nizari Ismailis, the so-called Assassins, who had intermittent confrontations and truces with the Crusader States. Later in history when "the Nizaris faced renewed Frankish hostilities, they received timely assistance from the Ayyubids."^[61] After a century of Seljuk rule, Syria was largely conquered (1175–1185) by the Kurdish liberator Salah ad-Din, founder of the Ayyubid dynasty of Egypt. Aleppo fell to the Mongols of Hulegu in January 1260, and Damascus in March, but then Hulegu was forced to break off his attack to return to China to deal with a succession dispute.

A few months later, the Mamluks arrived with an army from Egypt and defeated the Mongols in the Battle of Ain Jalut in Galilee. The Mamluk leader, Baibars, made Damascus a provincial capital. When he died, power was taken by Qalawun. In the meantime, an emir named Sunqur al-Ashqar had tried to declare himself ruler of Damascus, but he was defeated by Qalawun on 21 June 1280, and fled to northern Syria. Al-Ashqar, who had married a Mongol woman, appealed for help from the Mongols. The Mongols of the Ilkhanate took Aleppo in October 1280, but Qalawun persuaded Al-Ashqar to join him, and they fought against the Mongols on 29 October 1281, in the Second Battle of Homs, which was won by the Mamluks.^[62] In 1400, the Muslim Turco-Mongol conqueror Tamurlane invaded Syria, in which he sacked Aleppo,^[63] and captured Damascus after defeating the Mamluk army. The city's inhabitants were massacred, except for the artisans, who were deported to Samarkand.^[64] Tamurlane also conducted specific massacres of the Aramean and Assyrian Christian populations, greatly reducing their numbers.^[65] By the end of the 15th century, the discovery of a sea route from Europe to the Far East ended the need for an overland trade route through Syria.

Ottoman Syria

Main article: Ottoman Syria

Syrian women, 1683

In 1516, the Ottoman Empire invaded the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt, conquering Syria, and incorporating it into its empire. The Ottoman system was not burdensome to Syrians because the Turks respected Arabic as the language of the Quran, and accepted the mantle of defenders of the faith. Damascus was made the major entrepot for Mecca, and as such it acquired a holy character to Muslims, because of the beneficial results of the countless pilgrims who passed through on the hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca.^[66]

Ottoman administration followed a system that led to peaceful coexistence. Each ethno-religious minority—Arab Shia Muslim, Arab Sunni Muslim, Aramean-Syriac Orthodox, Greek Orthodox, Maronite Christians, Assyrian Christians, Armenians, Kurds and Jews—constituted a millet.^[67] The religious heads of each community administered all personal status laws and performed certain civil functions as well.^[66] In 1831, Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt renounced his loyalty to the Empire and overran Ottoman Syria, capturing Damascus. His short-term rule over the domain attempted to change the demographics and social structure of the region: he brought thousands of Egyptian villagers to populate the plains of Southern Syria, rebuilt Jaffa and settled it with veteran Egyptian soldiers aiming to turn it into a regional capital, and he crushed peasant and Druze rebellions and deported non-loyal tribesmen. By 1840, however, he had to surrender the area back to the Ottomans. From 1864, Tanzimat reforms were applied on Ottoman Syria, carving out the provinces (vilayets) of Aleppo, Zor, Beirut and Damascus Vilayet; Mutasarrifate of Mount Lebanon was created, as well, and soon after the Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem was given a separate status.

Armenian deportees near Aleppo during the Armenian genocide, 1915

During World War I, the Ottoman Empire entered the conflict on the side of Germany and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. It ultimately suffered defeat and loss of control of the entire Near East to the British Empire and French Empire. During the conflict, genocide against indigenous Christian peoples was carried out by the Ottomans and their allies in the form of the Armenian genocide and Assyrian genocide, of which Deir ez-Zor, in Ottoman Syria, was the final destination of these death marches.^[68] In the midst of World War I, two Allied diplomats (Frenchman François Georges-Picot and Briton Mark Sykes) secretly agreed on the post-war division of the Ottoman Empire into respective zones of influence in the Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916. Initially, the two territories were separated by a border that ran in an almost straight line from Jordan to Iran. However, the discovery of oil in the region of Mosul just before the end of the war led to yet another negotiation with France in 1918 to cede this region to the British zone of influence, which was to become Iraq. The fate of the intermediate province of Zor was left unclear; its occupation by Arab nationalists resulted in its attachment to Syria. This border was recognized internationally when Syria became a League of Nations mandate in 1920^[69] and has not changed to date.

French Mandate

Main articles: Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon and Mandatory Syrian Republic

The inauguration of President Hashim al-Atassi in 1936

In 1920, a short-lived independent Kingdom of Syria was established under Faisal I of the Hashemite family. However, his rule over Syria ended after only a few months, following the Battle of Maysalun. French troops occupied Syria later that year after the San Remo conference proposed that the League of Nations put Syria under a French mandate. General Gouraud had according to his secretary de Caix two options: "Either build a Syrian nation that does not exist... by smoothing the rifts which still divide it" or "cultivate and maintain all the phenomena, which require our arbitration that these divisions give". De Caix added "I must say only the second option interests me". This is what Gouraud did.^[70][71]

In 1925, Sultan al-Atrash led a revolt that broke out in the Druze Mountain and spread to engulf the whole of Syria and parts of Lebanon. Al-Atrash won several battles against the French, notably the Battle of al-Kafr on 21 July 1925, the Battle of al-Mazraa on 2–3 August 1925, and the battles of Salkhad, al-Musayfirah and Suwayda. France sent thousands of troops from Morocco and Senegal, leading the French to regain many cities, although resistance lasted until the spring of 1927. The French sentenced Sultan al-Atrash to death, but he had escaped with the rebels to Transjordan and was eventually pardoned. He returned to Syria in 1937 after the signing of the Syrian-French Treaty.

Syrian rebels in Ghouta during the Great Syrian Revolt against French colonial rule in the 1920s

Syria and France negotiated a treaty of independence in September 1936, and Hashim al-Atassi was the first president to be elected under the first incarnation of the modern republic of Syria. However, the treaty never came into force because the French Legislature refused to ratify it. With the fall of France in 1940 during World War II, Syria came under the control of Vichy France until the British and Free French occupied the country in the Syria-Lebanon campaign in July 1941. Continuing pressure from Syrian nationalists and the British forced the French to evacuate their troops in April 1946, leaving the country in the hands of a republican government that had been formed during the mandate.^[72]

Independent Syrian Republic

Main articles: Syrian Republic (1946–63), United Arab Republic, and 1963 Syrian coup d'état

Upheaval dominated Syrian politics from independence through the late 1960s. In May 1948, Syrian forces invaded Palestine, together with other Arab states, and immediately attacked Jewish settlements.^[73] Their president Shukri al-Quwwatli instructed his troops in the front, "to destroy the Zionists".^[74][75] The Invasion purpose was to prevent the establishment of the State of Israel.^[76] Toward this end, the Syrian government engaged in an active process of recruiting former Nazis, including several former members of the Schutzstaffel, to build up their armed forces and military intelligence capabilities.^[77] Defeat in this war was one of several trigger factors for the March 1949 Syrian coup d'état by Col. Husni al-Za'im, described as the first military overthrow of the Arab World^[76] since the start of the Second World War. This was soon followed by another overthrow, by Col. Sami al-Hinnawi, who was himself quickly deposed by Col. Adib Shishakli, all within the same year.^[76]

Aleppo in 1961

Shishakli eventually abolished multipartyism altogether, but was himself overthrown in a 1954 coup and the parliamentary system was restored.^[76] However, by this time, power was increasingly concentrated in the military and security establishment.^[76] The weakness of Parliamentary institutions and the mismanagement of the economy led to unrest and the influence of Nasserism and other ideologies. There was fertile ground for various Arab nationalist, Syrian nationalist, and socialist movements, which represented disaffected elements of society. Notably included were religious minorities, who demanded radical reform.^[76]

In November 1956, as a direct result of the Suez Crisis,^[78] Syria signed a pact with the Soviet Union. This gave a foothold for Communist influence within the government in exchange for military equipment.^[76] Turkey then became worried about this increase in the strength of Syrian military technology, as it seemed feasible that Syria might attempt to retake İskenderun. Only heated debates in the United Nations lessened the threat of war.^[79]

Gamal Abdel Nasser at Aleppo, 1960

On 1 February 1958, Syrian President Shukri al-Quwatli and Egypt's Nasser announced the merging of Egypt and Syria, creating the United Arab Republic, and all Syrian political parties, as well as the communists therein, ceased overt activities.^[72] Meanwhile, a group of Syrian Ba'athist officers, alarmed by the party's poor position and the increasing fragility of the union, decided to form a secret Military Committee; its initial members were Lieutenant-Colonel Muhammad Umran, Major Salah Jadid and Captain Hafiz al-Assad. Syria seceded from the union with Egypt on 28 September 1961, after a coup and terminated the political union.

Ba'athist Syria

The instability which followed the 1961 coup culminated in the 8 March 1963 Ba'athist coup. The takeover was engineered by members of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party, led by Michel Aflaq and Salah al-Din al-Bitar. The new Syrian cabinet was dominated by Ba'ath members.^[72][76] Since the 1963 seizure of power by its Military Committee, the Ba'ath party has ruled Syria as a totalitarian state. Ba'athists took control over country's politics, education, culture, religion and surveilled all aspects of civil society through its powerful Mukhabarat (secret police). Syrian Arab Armed forces and secret police were integrated with the Ba'ath party apparatus; after the purging of traditional civilian and military elites by the new regime.^[80]

Hafez al-Assad, president of Syria (1970–2000)

The 1963 Ba'athist coup marked a "radical break" in modern Syrian history, after which Ba'ath party monopolised power in the country to establish a one-party state and shaped a new socio-political order by enforcing its state ideology.^[81] On 23 February 1966, the neo-Ba'athist Military Committee carried out an intra-party rebellion against the Ba'athist Old Guard (Aflaq and Bitar), imprisoned President Amin al-Hafiz and designated a regionalist, civilian Ba'ath government on 1 March.^[76] Although Nureddin al-Atassi became the formal head of state, Salah Jadid was Syria's effective ruler from 1966 until November 1970,^[82] when he was deposed by Hafiz al-Assad, who at the time was Minister of Defense.^[83]

The coup led to the schism within the original pan-Arab Ba'ath Party: one Iraqi-led ba'ath movement (ruled Iraq from 1968 to 2003) and one Syrian-led ba'ath movement was established. In the first half of 1967, a low-key state of war existed between Syria and Israel. Conflict over Israeli cultivation of land in the Demilitarized Zone led to 7 April pre-war aerial clashes between Israel and Syria.^[84] When the Six-Day War broke out between Egypt and Israel, Syria joined the war and attacked Israel as well. In the final days of the war, Israel turned its attention to Syria, capturing two-thirds of the Golan Heights in under 48 hours.^[85] The defeat caused a split between Jadid and Assad over what steps to take next.^[86] Disagreement developed between Jadid, who controlled the party apparatus, and Assad, who controlled the military. The 1970 retreat of Syrian forces sent to aid the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) led by Yasser Arafat during the "Black September (also known as the Jordan Civil War of 1970)" hostilities with Jordan reflected this disagreement.^[87]

The power struggle culminated in the November 1970 Syrian Corrective movement, a bloodless military coup that installed Hafiz al-Assad as the strongman of the government.^[83] General Hafiz al-Assad transformed a Ba'athist party state into a totalitarian dictatorship marked by his pervasive grip on the party, armed forces, secret police, media, education sector, religious and cultural spheres and all aspects of civil society. He assigned Alawite loyalists to key posts in the military forces, bureaucracy, intelligence and the ruling elite. A cult of personality revolving around Hafiz and his family became a core tenet of Ba'athist ideology,^[88] which espoused that Assad dynasty was destined to rule perennially.^[89] On 6 October 1973, Syria and Egypt initiated the Yom Kippur War against Israel. The Israel Defense Forces reversed the initial Syrian gains and pushed deeper into Syrian territory.^[90] The village of Quneitra was largely destroyed by the Israeli army. In the late 1970s, an Islamist uprising by the Muslim Brotherhood was aimed against the government. Islamists attacked civilians and off-duty military personnel, leading security forces to also kill civilians in retaliatory strikes. The uprising had reached its climax in the 1982 Hama massacre,^[91] when more than 40,000 people were killed by Syrian military troops and Ba'athist paramilitaries.^[92][93] It has been described as the "single deadliest act" of violence perpetrated by any state upon its own population in modern Arab history^[92][93]

In a major shift in relations with both other Arab states and the Western world, Syria participated in the United States-led Gulf War against Saddam Hussein. The country participated in the multilateral Madrid Conference of 1991, and during the 1990s engaged in negotiations with Israel along with Palestine and Jordan. These negotiations failed, and there have been no further direct Syrian-Israeli talks since President Hafiz al-Assad's meeting with then President Bill Clinton in Geneva in March 2000.^[94]

21st century and civil war

Main article: Syrian Civil War

Hafiz al-Assad died on 10 June 2000. His son, Bashar al-Assad, was elected president in an election in which he ran unopposed.^[72] His election saw the birth of the Damascus Spring and hopes of reform, but by autumn 2001, the authorities had suppressed the movement, imprisoning some of its leading intellectuals.^[95] Instead, reforms have been limited to some market reforms.^[88][96][97] On 5 October 2003, Israel bombed a site near Damascus, claiming it was a terrorist training facility for members of Islamic Jihad.^[98] In March 2004, Syrian Kurds and Arabs clashed in the northeastern city of al-Qamishli. Signs of rioting were seen in the cities of Qamishli and Hasakeh.^[99] In 2005, Syria ended its military presence in Lebanon.^[100] Assassination of Rafic Hariri in 2005 led to international condemnation and triggered a popular Intifada in Lebanon, known as "the Cedar Revolution" which forced the Assad regime to end its 29-year old of military occupation in Lebanon.^[101] On 6 September 2007, foreign jet fighters, suspected as Israeli, reportedly carried out Operation Orchard against a suspected nuclear reactor under construction by North Korean technicians.^[102]

The Syrian civil war is an ongoing internal violent conflict in Syria. It is a part of the wider Arab Spring, a wave of upheaval throughout the Arab World. Public demonstrations across Syria began on 26 January 2011 and developed into a nationwide uprising. Protesters demanded the resignation of President Bashar al-Assad, the overthrow of his government, and an end to nearly five decades of Ba’ath Party rule. Since spring 2011, the Syrian government deployed the Syrian Army to quell the uprising, and several cities were besieged,^[103][104] though the unrest continued. According to some witnesses, soldiers, who refused to open fire on civilians, were summarily executed by the Syrian Army.^[105] The Syrian government denied reports of defections, and blamed armed gangs for causing trouble.^[106] Since early autumn 2011, civilians and army defectors began forming fighting units, which began an insurgency campaign against the Syrian Army. The insurgents unified under the banner of the Free Syrian Army and fought in an increasingly organized fashion; however, the civilian component of the armed opposition lacked an organized leadership.^[107]

Pro-Assad demonstration in the capital Damascus after US-led missile strikes in April 2018

The uprising has sectarian undertones, though neither faction in the conflict has described sectarianism as playing a major role. The opposition is dominated by Sunni Muslims, whereas the leading government figures are Alawites,^[107] affiliated with Shia Islam. As a result, the opposition is winning support from the Sunni Muslim states, whereas the government is publicly supported by the Shia dominated Iran and the Lebanese Hezbollah. According to various sources, including the United Nations, up to 13,470–19,220 people have been killed, of which about half were civilians, but also including 6,035–6,570 armed combatants from both sides^{[108][109][110][111]} and up to 1,400 opposition protesters.^[112] Many more have been injured, and tens of thousands of protesters have been imprisoned. According to the Syrian government, 9,815–10,146 people, including 3,430 members of the security forces, 2,805–3,140 insurgents and up to 3,600 civilians, have been killed in fighting with what they characterize as "armed terrorist groups."^[113] To escape the violence, tens of thousands of Syrian refugees have fled the country to neighboring Jordan, Iraq and ^[114] Lebanon, as well to Turkey.^[115] The total official UN numbers of Syrian refugees reached 42,000 at the time,^[116] while unofficial number stood at as many as 130,000.

Aerial view of Damascus in 2020

UNICEF reported that over 500 children have been killed,^[117][118] Another 400 children have been reportedly arrested and tortured in Syrian prisons.^[119][120] Both claims have been contested by the Syrian government.^[121] Additionally, over 600 detainees and political prisoners have died under torture.^[122] Human Rights Watch accused the government and Shabiha of using civilians as human shields when they advanced on opposition held-areas.^[123] Anti-government rebels have been accused of human rights abuses as well, including torture, kidnapping, unlawful detention and execution of civilians, Shabiha and soldiers.^[107] HRW also expressed concern at the kidnapping of Iranian nationals.^[124] The UN Commission of Inquiry has also documented abuses of this nature in its February 2012 report, which also includes documentation that indicates rebel forces have been responsible for displacement of civilians.^[125]

Being ranked 8th last on the 2024 Global Peace Index and 4th worst in the 2024 Fragile States Index,^[126] Syria is one of the most dangerous places for journalists. Freedom of press is extremely limited, and the country is ranked 2nd worst in the 2024 World Press Freedom Index.^[127][128] Syria is the most corrupt country in the Middle East^[129][130] and was ranked the 2nd lowest globally on the 2023 Corruption Perceptions Index.^[131] The country has also become the epicentre of a state-sponsored multi-billion dollar illicit drug cartel, the largest in the world.^{[132][133][134][135]} The civil war has resulted in more than 600,000 deaths,^[136] with pro-Assad forces causing more than 90% of the total civilian casualties.^[d] The war led to a massive refugee crisis, with an estimated 7.6 million internally displaced people (July 2015 UNHCR figure) and over 5 million refugees (July 2017 registered by UNHCR).^[145] The war has also worsened economic conditions, with more than 90% of the population living in poverty and 80% facing food insecurity.^[e]

The Arab League, the United States, the European Union states, the Gulf Cooperation Council states, and other countries have condemned the use of violence against the protesters.^[107] China and Russia have avoided condemning the government or applying sanctions, saying that such methods could escalate into foreign intervention. However, military intervention has been ruled out by most countries.^{[150][151][152]} The Arab League suspended Syria's membership over the government's response to the crisis,^[153] but sent an observer mission in December 2011, as part of its proposal for peaceful resolution of the crisis.^[152] The latest attempts to resolve the crisis has been made through the appointment of Kofi Annan, as a special envoy to resolve the Syrian crisis in the Middle East.^[107] Some analysts however have posited the partitioning the region into a Sunnite east, Kurdish north and Shiite/Alawite west.^[154] Twelve years into Syria's devastating civil war, the conflict appears to have settled into a frozen state.^[155] Although roughly 30% of the country is controlled by opposition forces, heavy fighting has largely ceased and there is a growing regional trend toward normalizing relations with the regime of Bashar al-Assad.^[155]

Geography

Main article: Geography of Syria

Syria is the twelfth most water stressed country in the world.

Syria lies between latitudes 32° and 38° N, and longitudes 35° and 43° E. The climate varies from the humid Mediterranean coast, through a semiarid steppe zone, to arid desert in the east. The country consists mostly of arid plateau, although the northwest part bordering the Mediterranean is fairly green. Al-Jazira in the northeast and Hawran in the south are important agricultural areas. The Euphrates, Syria's most important river, crosses the country in the east. Syria is one of the fifteen states that comprise the so-called "cradle of civilization".^[156] Its land straddles the "northwest of the Arabian plate".^[157]

Petroleum in commercial quantities was first discovered in the northeast in 1956. The most important oil fields are those of al-Suwaydiyah, Karatchok, Rmelan near al-Hasakah, as well as al-Omar and al-Taym fields near Dayr az–Zawr. The fields are a natural extension of the Iraqi fields of Mosul and Kirkuk. Petroleum became Syria's leading natural resource and chief export after 1974. Natural gas was discovered at the field of Jbessa in 1940.^[72]

Biodiversity

Main article: Wildlife of Syria

See also: Environmental issues in Syria

Syria contains four terrestrial ecoregions: Syrian xeric grasslands and shrublands, Eastern Mediterranean conifer-sclerophyllous-broadleaf forests, Southern Anatolian montane conifer and deciduous forests, and Mesopotamian shrub desert.^[158] The country had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 3.64/10, ranking it 144th globally out of 172 countries.^[159]

Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Syria

See also: Elections in Syria and Syrian civil war

President Bashar al-Assad

Prime Minister Hussein Arnous

Syria is a presidential state^[160] that nominally permits the candidacy of individuals who do not form part of the Ba'ath-controlled National Progressive Front.^[161][162] Despite this, Syria remains a one-party state with an extensive secret police apparatus that curtails any independent political activity.^[163][164] The new constitution introduced single-handedly by the Assad regime, without participation of the Syrian opposition, has bolstered its authoritarian character by bestowing extraordinary powers on the Presidency and a Ba'athist political committee continues to be responsible for authorization of political parties.^[165]

The ruling Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party governs Syria as a totalitarian police state,^[166] through its control of the Syrian military and security apparatus.^[f] 50th edition of Freedom in the World, the annual report published by Freedom House in 2023, designates Syria as "Worst of the Worst" among the "Not Free" countries and gives it the lowest score (1/100) alongside South Sudan.^[167][168]

According to the 2012 Syrian constitution, the Syrian president is the head of Syrian state, while the Syrian prime Minister is nominally the head of government,^[169] although real power in the system lies with the Presidency.^[170] The legislature, the Peoples Council, is the body responsible for passing laws, approving government appropriations and debating policy.^[171] In the event of a vote of no confidence by a simple majority, the Prime Minister is required to tender the resignation of their government to the President.^[172] Since the rule of Hafez al-Asad, the Syrian Ba'athist political system has been centered around a comprehensive cult of personality focused on the al-Assad family;^{[173][174][175][176]} with Alawite loyalists of the Ba'ath party dominating key positions in the military apparatus, secret police and political establishment.^[88]

The executive branch consists of the president, two vice presidents, the prime minister, and the Council of Ministers (cabinet). The constitution requires the president to be a Muslim but does not make Islam the state religion.^[177][178] On 31 January 1973, Hafiz al-Assad implemented a new constitution, which led to a national crisis. Unlike previous constitutions, this one did not require that the President of Syria be a Muslim, leading to fierce demonstrations in Hama, Homs and Aleppo organized by the Muslim Brotherhood and the traditional ulama. They labelled Assad the "enemy of Allah" and called for a jihad against his rule.^[179] The government survived a series of armed revolts led mostly by Islamists of the Muslim Brotherhood, between 1976 and 1982, through a series of repressions and massacres. The constitution gives the president the right to appoint ministers, to declare war and state of emergency, to issue laws (which, except in the case of emergency, require ratification by the People's Council), to declare amnesty, to amend the constitution, and to appoint civil servants and military personnel.^[177] According to the 2012 constitution, the president is elected by Syrian citizens in a direct election. Syria's legislative branch is the unicameral People's Council. Under the previous constitution, Syria did not hold multi-party elections for the legislature,^[177] with two-thirds of the seats automatically allocated to the ruling coalition.^[180] On 7 May 2012, Syria held its first elections in which parties outside the ruling coalition could take part. Seven new political parties took part in the elections, of which Popular Front for Change and Liberation was the largest opposition party. The anti-government Syrian opposition coalition, however, chose not to field candidates and called on their supporters to boycott the elections. The People's Council primarily serves as an institution to validate Syria's one-party system and re-affirm the legislative proceedings of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath party.^[181] As of 2008, the President is the Regional Secretary of the Ba'ath party in Syria and leader of the National Progressive Front governing coalition. Ethnic minorities like Kurds have no cultural or linguistic rights and activities of Kurdish political parties are banned.^[182]

There is no independent judiciary in Syria, since all judges and prosecutors are required to be Ba'athist appointees.^[183] Syria's judicial branches include the Supreme Constitutional Court, the High Judicial Council, the Court of Cassation, and the State Security Courts. Islamic jurisprudence is a main source of legislation and Syria's judicial system has elements of Ottoman, French, and Islamic laws. Syria has three levels of courts: courts of first instance, courts of appeals, and the constitutional court, the highest tribunal. Religious courts handle questions of personal and family law.^[177] The Supreme State Security Court (SSSC) was abolished by President Bashar al-Assad by legislative decree No. 53 on 21 April 2011.^[184] The Personal Status Law 59 of 1953 (amended by Law 34 of 1975) is essentially a codified sharia.^[185] Article 3(2) of the 1973 constitution declares Islamic jurisprudence a main source of legislation. The Code of Personal Status is applied to Muslims by sharia courts.^[186] As a result of the ongoing civil war, various alternative governments were formed, including the Syrian Interim Government, the Democratic Union Party and localized regions governed by sharia law. Representatives of the Syrian Interim government were invited to take up Syria's seat at the Arab League on 28 March 2013 and^[187] was recognised as the "sole representative of the Syrian people" by several nations including the United States, United Kingdom and France.^{[188][189][190]}

Syria's elections are conducted through a sham process; characterised by wide-scale rigging, repetitive voting and absence of voter registration and verification systems.^{[191][192][193]} Parliamentary elections were held on 13 April 2016 in the government-controlled areas of Syria, for all 250 seats of Syria's unicameral legislature, the Majlis al-Sha'ab, or the People's Council of Syria.^[194] Even before results had been announced, several nations, including Germany, the United States and the United Kingdom, have declared their refusal to accept the results, largely citing it "not representing the will of the Syrian people."^[195] However, representatives of the Russian Federation have voiced their support of this election's results. Various independent observers and international organizations have denounced the Assad regime's electoral conduct as a scam; with the United Nations condemning it as illegitimate elections with “no mandate”.^{[196][197][198][199]} Electoral Integrity Project's 2022 Global report designates Syrian elections as a "facade" with the worst electoral integrity in the world alongside Comoros and Central African Republic.^[200][201] Three alternative governments formed during the Syrian Civil War, the Syrian Interim Government (formed in 2013), Rojava (formed in 2016) and the Syrian Salvation Government (formed in 2017), control northern of the country and operate independently of the Syrian Arab Republic.

Administrative divisions

Main articles: Governorates of Syria and Districts of Syria

Syria is divided into 14 governorates, which are sub-divided into 61 districts, which are further divided into sub-districts. The Democratic Federation of Northern Syria, while de facto autonomous, is not recognized by the country as such.

	No.	Governorate	Capital
Governorates of Syria
	1	Latakia	Latakia
	2	Idlib	Idlib
	3	Aleppo	Aleppo
	4	Raqqa	Raqqa
	5	Al-Hasakah	Al-Hasakah
	6	Tartus	Tartus
	7	Hama	Hama
	8	Deir ez-Zor	Deir ez-Zor
	9	Homs	Homs
	10	Damascus	Damascus
	11	Rif Dimashq	Douma
	12	Quneitra	Quneitra
	13	Daraa	Daraa
	14	Al-Suwayda	Al-Suwayda

Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria

The Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria (AANES), also known as Rojava,^[g] is a de facto autonomous region in northeastern Syria.^[205][206] It consists of self-governing sub-regions in the areas of Afrin, Jazira, Euphrates, Raqqa, Tabqa, Manbij and Deir Ez-Zor.^[207][208] The region gained its de facto autonomy in 2012 in the context of the ongoing Rojava conflict and the wider Syrian civil war, in which its official military force, the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), has taken part.^[209][210]

While entertaining some foreign relations, the region is not officially recognized as autonomous by the government of Syria or any state^[211] though it has been recognized by the regional Catalan Parliament.^[212][213] The AANES has widespread support for its universal democratic, sustainable, autonomous pluralist, equal, and feminist policies in dialogues with other parties and organizations.^{[214][215][216][217]} Northeastern Syria is polyethnic and home to sizeable ethnic Kurdish, Arab and Assyrian populations, with smaller communities of ethnic Turkmen, Armenians, Circassians,^[218] and Yazidis.^{[219][220][221]}

The supporters of the region's administration state that it is an officially secular polity^[222][223] with direct democratic ambitions based on an anarchistic, feminist, and libertarian socialist ideology promoting decentralization, gender equality,^[224][225] environmental sustainability, social ecology and pluralistic tolerance for religious, cultural and political diversity, and that these values are mirrored in its constitution, society, and politics, stating it to be a model for a federalized Syria as a whole, rather than outright independence.^{[226][227][228][229]} The region's administration has also been accused by some partisan and non-partisan sources of authoritarianism, support of the Syrian government,^[230] Kurdification, and displacement.^{[citation needed]} However, despite this the AANES has been the most democratic system in Syria, with direct open elections, universal equality, respecting human rights within the region, as well as defense of minority and religious rights within Syria.^{[231][232][233][214][234][235][236]}

On 13 October 2019, the SDF announced that it had reached an agreement with the Syrian Army which allowed the latter to enter the SDF-held cities of Manbij and Kobani in order to dissuade a Turkish attack on those cities as part of the cross-border offensive by Turkish and Turkish-backed Syrian rebels.^[237] The Syrian Army also deployed in the north of Syria together with the SDF along the Syrian-Turkish border and entered into several SDF-held cities such as Ayn Issa and Tell Tamer.^[238][239] Following the creation of the Second Northern Syria Buffer Zone the SDF stated that it was ready to work cooperatively with the Syrian Army if a political settlement between the Syrian government and the SDF was achieved.^[240]

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Syria

Diplomatic missions of Syria

Ensuring national security, increasing influence among its Arab neighbors, and securing the return of the Golan Heights, have been the primary goals of Syria's foreign policy. At many points in its history, Syria has seen virulent tension with its geographically cultural neighbors, such as Turkey, Israel, Iraq, and Lebanon. Syria enjoyed an improvement in relations with several of the states in its region in the 21st century, prior to the Arab Spring and the Syrian Civil War.

Since the ongoing civil war of 2011, and associated killings and human rights abuses, Syria has been increasingly isolated from the countries in the region, and the wider international community. Diplomatic relations have been severed with several countries including: Britain, Canada, France, Italy, Germany, Tunisia, Egypt, Libya, the United States, Belgium, Spain, and the Arab states of the Persian Gulf.^[241]

Map of world and Syria (red) with military involvement.

  Countries that support the Syrian government

  Countries that support the Syrian rebels

From the Arab league, Syria continues to maintain diplomatic relations with Algeria, Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Sudan and Yemen. Following its violent suppression of the Arab Spring protests of the 2011 Syrian Revolution, the Syrian government was suspended from the Arab League in November 2011 for over 11 years, until its reinstatement in 2023.^[242] Syria also quit the Union for the Mediterranean.^[243] After 11 years, the Arab League readmitted Syria.^[244] The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation suspended Syria in August 2012 citing "deep concern at the massacres and inhuman acts" perpetrated by forces loyal to Bashar al-Assad.^[h]

International disputes

See also: Turkish occupation of northern Syria and Israeli-occupied territories

In 1939, while Syria was still a French mandate the French allowed a plebiscite regarding the Sanjak of Alexandretta joining to Turkey as part of a treaty of friendship in World War II. In order to facilitate this, a faulty election was done in which ethnic Turks who were originally from the Sanjak but lived in Adana and other areas near the border in Turkey came to vote in the elections, shifting the election in favor of secession. Through this, the Hatay Province of Turkey was formed. The move by the French was very controversial in Syria, and only five years later Syria became independent.^[245] Despite the Turkish annexation of the Sanjak of Alexandretta, the Syrian government has refused to recognize Turkish sovereignty over the region since Independence, except for a short period during the year of 1949.^[246]

Golan Heights was occupied by Israel since the Six-Day War

The western two-thirds of Syria's Golan Heights region are since 1967 occupied by Israel and were in 1981 effectively annexed by Israel,^[247][248] whereas the eastern third is controlled by Syria, with the UNDOF maintaining a buffer zone in between, to implement the ceasefire of the Purple Line. Israel's 1981 Golan annexation law is not recognized in international law. The UN Security Council condemned it in Resolution 497 (1981) as "null and void and without international legal effect." Since then, General Assembly resolutions on "The Occupied Syrian Golan" reaffirm the illegality of Israeli occupation and annexation.^[249] The Syrian government continues to demand the return of this territory.^[250] The only remaining land Syria has in the Golan is a strip of territory which contains the abandoned city of Quneitra, the governorate's de facto capital Madinat al-Baath and many small villages, mostly populated by Circassians such as Beer Ajam and Hader.^{[dubious – discuss]} In March 2019, U.S. President Donald Trump announced that the United States will recognize Israel's annexation of the Golan Heights.^[251]

In early 1976, Syria entered Lebanon, beginning their twenty-nine-year military presence. Syria entered on the invitation of Suleiman Franjieh, the Maronite Christian president at the time to help aid the Lebanese Christian militias against the Palestinian militias.^[252][253] Over the following 15 years of civil war, Syria fought for control over Lebanon. The Syrian military remained in Lebanon until 26 April 2005 in response to domestic and international pressure after the assassination of former Lebanese Prime Minister, Rafik Hariri.^[254]

Another disputed territory is the Shebaa farms, located in the intersection of the Lebanese-Syrian border and the Israeli occupied Golan Heights. The farms, which are 11 km long and about 3 kilometers wide were occupied by Israel in 1981, along with rest of the Golan Heights.^[255] Yet following Syrian army advances the Israeli occupation ended and Syria became the de facto ruling power over the farms. Yet after Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon in 2000, Hezbollah claimed that the withdrawal was not complete because Shebaa was on Lebanese – not Syrian – territory.^[256] After studying 81 different maps, the United Nations concluded that there is no evidence of the abandoned farmlands being Lebanese.^[257] Nevertheless, Lebanon has continued to claim ownership of the territory.

Military

Main article: Syrian Armed Forces

A Syrian Army soldier manning a checkpoint outside of Damascus shortly after the outbreak of the Syrian Civil War, 2012

The President of Syria is commander in chief of the Syrian Armed Forces, comprising some 400,000 troops upon mobilization. The military is a conscripted force; males serve in the military upon reaching the age of 18.^{[citation needed]} The obligatory military service period is being decreased over time, in 2005 from two and a half years to two years, in 2008 to 21 months and in 2011 to year and a half.^[258] About 20,000 Syrian soldiers were deployed in Lebanon until 27 April 2005, when the last of Syria's troops left the country after three decades.^{[citation needed]}

The breakup of the Soviet Union—long the principal source of training, material, and credit for the Syrian forces—may have slowed Syria's ability to acquire modern military equipment. It has an arsenal of surface-to-surface missiles. In the early 1990s, Scud-C missiles with a 500-kilometre (310-mile) range were procured from North Korea, and Scud-D, with a range of up to 700 kilometres (430 miles), is allegedly being developed by Syria with the help of North Korea and Iran, according to Zisser.^[259]

Syria received significant financial aid from Arab states of the Persian Gulf as a result of its participation in the Persian Gulf War, with a sizable portion of these funds earmarked for military spending. Iran and Russia are biggest suppliers of military aid to the Assad-led Syrian Government.

Human rights

Main articles: Human rights in Syria and LGBT rights in Syria

Wounded civilians arrive at a hospital in Aleppo, October 2012

The situation for human rights in Syria has long been a significant concern among independent organizations such as Human Rights Watch, who in 2010 referred to the country's record as "among the worst in the world."^[260] The 2011 Freedom House report^[261] ranked Syria "Not Free" in its annual Freedom in the World survey.^[262] The Ba'ath regime is a totalitarian dictatorship that has been internationally condemned for its domestic and political repression, including summary executions, massive censorship,^[263][264] forced disappearances,^[265][266] etc. as well as numerous crimes against Syrian civilians perpetrated during the civil war, such as massacres, barrel-bombings, chemical attacks, etc.^[267][268]

The authorities are accused of arresting democracy and human rights activists, censoring websites, detaining bloggers, and imposing travel bans. Arbitrary detention, torture, and disappearances are widespread.^{[265][266][269]} Although Syria's constitution guarantees gender equality, critics say that personal statutes laws and the penal code discriminate against women and girls. Moreover, it also grants leniency for so-called 'Honour killing'.^[269] As of 9 November 2011 during the uprising against President Bashar al-Assad, the United Nations reported that of the over 3500 total deaths, over 250 deaths were children as young as two years old, and that boys as young as 11 years old have been gang-raped by security services officers.^[270][271] People opposing President Assad's rule claim that more than 200, mostly civilians, were massacred and about 300 injured in Hama in shelling by the Government forces on 12 July 2012.^[272]

In August 2013, the government was suspected of using chemical weapons against its civilians. US Secretary of State John Kerry said it was "undeniable" that chemical weapons had been used in the country and that President Bashar al-Assad's forces had committed a "moral obscenity" against his own people. "Make no mistake," Kerry said. "President Obama believes there must be accountability for those who would use the world's most heinous weapon against the world's most vulnerable people. Nothing today is more serious, and nothing is receiving more serious scrutiny".^[273] The Emergency Law, effectively suspending most constitutional protections, was in effect from 1963 until 21 April 2011. It was justified by the government in the light of the continuing war with Israel over the Golan Heights.^[177][184]

In August 2014, UN Human Rights chief Navi Pillay criticized the international community over its "paralysis" in dealing with the more than 3-year-old civil war gripping the country, which by 30 April 2014, had resulted in 191,369 deaths with war crimes, according to Pillay, being committed with total impunity on all sides in the conflict. Minority Alawites and Christians are being increasingly targeted by Islamists and other groups fighting in the Syrian civil war.^{[274][275][276][268]} Three years later in April 2017, the U.S. Navy carried out a missile attack against a Syrian air base^[277] which had allegedly been used to conduct a chemical weapons attack on Syrian civilians, according to the US government.^[278] In November 2021, the US Central Command called a 2019 airstrike that killed civilians in Syria "legitimate". The acknowledgement came after a New York Times investigation said the military had concealed the death of dozens of non-combatants.^[279]

Economy

Main articles: Economy of Syria and Industry in Syria

See also: Tourism in Syria

Historical development of real GDP per capita in Syria, since 1820

Bank Al-Sharq and the Blue Tower Hotel in Damascus

As of 2015^[update], the Syrian economy relies upon inherently unreliable revenue sources such as dwindling customs and income taxes which are heavily bolstered by lines of credit from Iran.^[280] Iran is believed to spend between $6 billion and US$20 billion a year on Syria during the Syrian Civil War.^[281] The Syrian economy has contracted 60% and the Syrian pound has lost 80% of its value, with the economy becoming part state-owned and part war economy.^[282] At the outset of the ongoing Syrian Civil War, Syria was classified by the World Bank as a "lower middle income country."^[283] In 2010, Syria remained dependent on the oil and agriculture sectors.^[284] The oil sector provided about 40% of export earnings.^[284] Proven offshore expeditions have indicated that large sums of oil exist on the Mediterranean Sea floor between Syria and Cyprus.^[285] The agriculture sector contributes to about 20% of GDP and 20% of employment. Oil reserves are expected to decrease in the coming years and Syria has already become a net oil importer.^[284] Since the civil war began, the economy shrank by 35%, and the Syrian pound has fallen to one-sixth of its prewar value.^[286] The government increasingly relies on credit from Iran, Russia and China.^[286]

Al-Hamidiyah Souq in Damascus in 2010

The economy is highly regulated by the government, which has increased subsidies and tightened trade controls to assuage protesters and protect foreign currency reserves.^[9] Long-run economic constraints include foreign trade barriers, declining oil production, high unemployment, rising budget deficits, and increasing pressure on water supplies caused by heavy use in agriculture, rapid population growth, industrial expansion, and water pollution.^[9] The UNDP announced in 2005 that 30% of the Syrian population lives in poverty and 11.4% live below the subsistence level.^[72]

Syria's share in global exports has eroded gradually since 2001.^[287] The real per capita GDP growth was just 2.5% per year in the 2000–2008 period.^[287] Unemployment is high at above 10%. Poverty rates have increased from 11% in 2004 to 12.3% in 2007.^[287] In 2007, Syria's main exports included fenethylline pills (an illegal drug commonly known as captagon), crude oil, refined products, raw cotton, clothing, fruits, and grains. The bulk of Syrian imports are raw materials essential for industry, vehicles, agricultural equipment, and heavy machinery. Earnings from oil exports as well as remittances from Syrian workers are the government's most important sources of foreign exchange.^[72]

Political instability poses a significant threat to future economic development.^[288] Foreign investment is constrained by violence, government restrictions, economic sanctions, and international isolation. Syria's economy also remains hobbled by state bureaucracy, falling oil production, rising budget deficits, and inflation.^[288] Prior to the civil war in 2011, the government hoped to attract new investment in the tourism, natural gas, and service sectors to diversify its economy and reduce its dependence on oil and agriculture. The government began to institute economic reforms aimed at liberalizing most markets, but those reforms were slow and ad hoc, and have been completely reversed since the outbreak of conflict in 2011.^[289]

A cove in Latakia in 2014

As of 2012^[update], because of the ongoing Syrian civil war, the value of Syria's overall exports has been slashed by two-thirds, from the figure of US$12 billion in 2010 to only US$4 billion in 2012.^[290] Syria's GDP declined by over 3% in 2011,^[291] and is expected to further decline by 20% in 2012.^[292] As of 2012^[update], Syria's oil and tourism industries in particular have been devastated, with US$5 billion lost to the ongoing conflict of the civil war.^[290] Reconstruction needed because of the ongoing civil war will cost as much as US$10 billion.^[290] Sanctions have sapped the government's finances. US and European Union bans on oil imports, which went into effect in 2012, are estimated to cost Syria about $400 million a month.^[293] Revenues from tourism have dropped dramatically, with hotel occupancy rates falling from 90% before the war to less than 15% in May 2012.^[294] Around 40% of all employees in the tourism sector have lost their jobs since the beginning of the war.^[294] In May 2015, ISIS captured Syria's phosphate mines, one of the Syrian government's last chief sources of income.^[295] The following month, ISIS blew up a gas pipeline to Damascus that was used to generate heating and electricity in Damascus and Homs; "the name of its game for now is denial of key resources to the regime" an analyst stated.^[296] In addition, ISIS was closing in on Shaer gas field and three other facilities in the area—Hayan, Jihar and Ebla—with the loss of these western gas fields having the potential to cause Iran to further subsidize the Syrian government.^[297] Aleppo soap is a popular product of Syria.

Agrarian reform measures were introduced into Syria which consisted of three interrelated programs: Legislation regulation the relationship between agriculture laborers and landowners: legislation governing the ownership and use of private and state domain land and directing the economic organization of peasants; and measures reorganizing agricultural production under state control.^[298] Despite high levels of inequality in land ownership these reforms allowed for progress in redistribution of land from 1958 to 1961 than any other reforms in Syria's history, since independence.

The first law passed (Law 134; passed 4 September 1958) in response to concern about peasant mobilization and expanding peasants' rights.^[299] This was designed to strengthen the position of sharecroppers and agricultural laborers in relation to land owners.^[299] This law led to the creation of the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs, which announced the implementation of new laws that would allow the regulation of working condition especially for women and adolescents, set hours of work, and introduce the principle of minimum wage for paid laborers and an equitable division of harvest for sharecroppers.^[300] Furthermore, it obligated landlords to honor both written and oral contracts, established collective bargaining, contained provisions for workers' compensation, health, housing, and employment services.^[299] Law 134 was not designed strictly to protect workers. It also acknowledged the rights of landlords to form their own syndicates.^[299]

Drug industry

Syria is home to a burgeoning illegal drugs industry run by associates and relatives of the Syrian president, Bashar al-Assad.^[301] It mainly produces captagon, an addictive amphetamine popular in the Arab world. As of 2021, the export of illegal drugs eclipsed the country's legal exports, leading the New York Times to call Syria "the world's newest narcostate".^[301] The drug exports allow the Syrian government to generate hard currency and bypass international sanctions.^{[301][302][303]} Captagon is Syria's primary export, valued at a minimum of US$3.4 billion annually, surpassing the country's largest legal export, olive oil, which is valued at around US$122 million dollars a year, as per estimates.^[304]

Petroleum industry

Main article: Petroleum industry in Syria

Oil refinery in Homs

Syria's petroleum industry has been subject to a sharp decline. In September 2014, ISIS was producing more oil than the government at 80,000 bbl/d (13,000 m³/d) compared to the government's 17,000 bbl/d (2,700 m³/d) with the Syrian Oil Ministry stating that by the end of 2014, oil production had plunged further to 9,329 bbl/d (1,483.2 m³/d); ISIS has since captured a further oil field, leading to a projected oil production of 6,829 bbl/d (1,085.7 m³/d).^[280] In the third year of the Syrian Civil War, the deputy economy minister Salman Hayan stated that Syria's two main oil refineries were operating at less than 10% capacity.^[305]

Historically, the country produced heavy-grade oil from fields located in the northeast since the late 1960s. In the early 1980s, light-grade, low-sulphur oil was discovered near Deir ez-Zor in eastern Syria. Syria's rate of oil production has decreased dramatically from a peak close to 600,000 barrels per day (95,000 m³/d) (bpd) in 1995 down to less than 182,500 bbl/d (29,020 m³/d) in 2012.^[306] Since 2012 the production has decreased even more, reaching 32,000 barrels per day (5,100 m³/d) (bpd) in 2014. Official figures quantity the production in 2015 at 27,000 barrels per day (4,300 m³/d), but those figures have to be taken with precaution because it is difficult to estimate the oil that is currently produced in the rebel held areas.

Prior to the uprising, more than 90% of Syrian oil exports were to EU countries, with the remainder going to Turkey.^[294] Oil and gas revenues constituted in 2012 around 20% of total GDP and 25% of total government revenue.^[294]

Transport

Main article: Transport in Syria

Expressway M5 near Al-Rastan

Syria has four international airports (Damascus, Aleppo, Lattakia and Qamishli), which serve as hubs for Syrian Air and are also served by a variety of foreign carriers.^[307] The majority of Syrian cargo is carried by Syrian Railways (the Syrian railway company), which links up with Turkish State Railways (the Turkish counterpart). For a relatively underdeveloped country, Syria's railway infrastructure is well maintained with many express services and modern trains.^[308] The road network in Syria is 69,873 kilometres (43,417 miles) long, including 1,103 kilometres (685 miles) of expressways. The country also has 900 kilometres (560 miles) of navigable but not economically significant waterways.^[9]

Internet and telecommunications

Telecommunications in Syria are overseen by the Ministry of Communications and Technology.^[309] In addition, Syrian Telecom plays an integral role in the distribution of government internet access.^[310] The Syrian Electronic Army serves as a pro-government military faction in cyberspace and has been long considered an enemy of the hacktivist group Anonymous.^[311] Because of internet censorship laws, 13,000 internet activists were arrested between March 2011 and August 2012.^[312]

Water supply and sanitation

Main article: Water supply and sanitation in Syria

Syria is a semiarid country with scarce water resources. The largest water consuming sector in Syria is agriculture. Domestic water use stands at only about 9% of total water use.^[313] A big challenge for Syria before the civil war was its high population growth (in 2006 the growth rate was 2.7%^[314]), leading to rapidly increasing demand for urban and industrial water.^[315]

Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Syria and List of cities in Syria

Further information: Syrians

Historical populations

Year	Pop.	±% p.a.
1960	4,565,000	—
1970	6,305,000	+3.28%
1981	9,046,000	+3.34%
1994	13,782,000	+3.29%
2004	17,921,000	+2.66%
2011	21,124,000	+2.38%
2015	18,734,987	−2.96%
2019	18,528,105	−0.28%
2019 estimate[316] Source: Central Bureau of Statistics of the Syrian Arab Republic, 2011[317]

Most people live in the Euphrates River valley and along the coastal plain, a fertile strip between the coastal mountains and the desert. Overall population density in Syria before the Civil War was about 99 per square kilometre (258 per square mile).^[318] According to the World Refugee Survey 2008, published by the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, Syria hosted a population of refugees and asylum seekers numbering approximately 1,852,300. The vast majority of this population was from Iraq (1,300,000), but sizeable populations from Palestine (543,400) and Somalia (5,200) also lived in the country.^[319]

In what the UN has described as "the biggest humanitarian emergency of our era",^[320] by 2014 about 9.5 million Syrians, half the population, had been displaced since the outbreak of the Syrian Civil War in March 2011;^[321] 4 million were outside the country as refugees.^[322] By 2020, the UN estimated that over 5.5 million Syrians were living as refugees in the region, and 6.1 million others were internally displaced.^[323]

Largest cities

v t e Largest cities or towns in Syria Syria Central Bureau of Statistics (2004 Census)
	Rank	Name	Province	Pop.	Rank	Name	Province	Pop.
Aleppo Damascus	1	Aleppo	Aleppo Governorate	2,132,100	11	Tartus	Tartus Governorate	115,769	Homs Latakia
	2	Damascus	Damascus	1,552,161	12	Jaramana	Rif Dimashq Governorate	114,363
	3	Homs	Homs Governorate	652,609	13	Douma, Syria	Rif Dimashq Governorate	110,893
	4	Latakia	Latakia Governorate	383,786	14	Manbij	Aleppo Governorate	99,497
	5	Hama	Hama Governorate	312,994	15	Idlib	Idlib Governorate	98,791
	6	Raqqa	Raqqa Governorate	220,488	16	Daraa	Daraa Governorate	97,969
	7	Deir ez-Zor	Deir ez-Zor Governorate	211,857	17	Al-Hajar al-Aswad	Rif Dimashq Governorate	84,948
	8	Hasakah	Al-Hasakah Governorate	188,160	18	Darayya	Rif Dimashq Governorate	78,763
	9	Qamishli	Al-Hasakah Governorate	184,231	19	Suwayda	As-Suwayda Governorate	73,641
	10	Sayyidah Zaynab	Rif Dimashq Governorate	136,427	20	Al-Thawrah	Raqqa Governorate	69,425

Ethnic groups

Main article: Syrians

Damascus, traditional clothing

Syrians are an overall indigenous Levantine people, closely related to their immediate neighbors, such as Lebanese, Palestinians, Jordanians and Jews.^[324][325] Syria has a population of approximately 18,500,000 (2019 estimate). Syrian Arabs, together with some 600,000 Palestinian not including the 6 million refugees outside the country. Arabs make up roughly 74% of the population.^[9] The indigenous Assyrians and Western Aramaic-speakers number around 400,000 people,^[326] with the Western Aramaic-speakers living mainly in the villages of Ma'loula, Jubb'adin and Bakh'a, while the Assyrians mainly reside in the north and northeast (Homs, Aleppo, Qamishli, Hasakah). Many (particularly the Assyrian group) still retain several Neo-Aramaic dialects as spoken and written languages.^[327]

The second-largest ethnic group in Syria are the Kurds. They constitute about 9%^[328] to 10%^[329] of the population, or approximately 2 million people (including 40,000 Yazidis^[329]). Most Kurds reside in the northeastern corner of Syria and most speak the Kurmanji variant of the Kurdish language.^[328] The third largest ethnic group are the Turkish-speaking Syrian Turkmen/Turkoman. There are no reliable estimates of their total population, with estimates ranging from several hundred thousand to 3.5 million.^{[330][331][332]} The fourth largest ethnic group are the Assyrians (3–4%),^[329] followed by the Circassians (1.5%)^[329] and the Armenians (1%),^[329] most of which are the descendants of refugees who arrived in Syria during the Armenian genocide. Syria holds the 7th largest Armenian population in the world. They are mainly gathered in Aleppo, Qamishli, Damascus and Kesab.

The ethno-religious composition of Syria

There are also smaller ethnic minority groups, such as the Albanians, Bosnians, Georgians, Greeks, Persians, Pashtuns and Russians.^[329] However, most of these ethnic minorities have become Arabized to some degree, particularly those who practice the Muslim faith.^[329] The largest concentration of the Syrian diaspora outside the Arab world is in Brazil, which has millions of people of Arab and other Near Eastern ancestries.^[333] Brazil is the first country in the Americas to offer humanitarian visas to Syrian refugees.^[334] The majority of Arab Argentines are from either Lebanese or Syrian background.^[335]

Languages

Main article: Languages of Syria

Arabic is the official language of the country.^[1] Several modern Arabic dialects are used in everyday life, most notably Levantine in the west and Mesopotamian in the northeast. According to The Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics, in addition to Arabic, the following languages are spoken in the country, in order of the number of speakers: Kurdish,^[336] Turkish,^[336] Neo-Aramaic (four dialects),^[336] Circassian,^[336] Chechen,^[336] Armenian,^[336] and finally Greek.^[336] However, none of these minority languages have official status.^[336]

Aramaic was the lingua franca of the region before the advent of Arabic, and is still spoken among Assyrians, and Classical Syriac is still used as the liturgical language of various Syriac Christian denominations. Most remarkably, Western Neo-Aramaic is still spoken in the village of Ma'loula as well as two neighboring villages, 56 km (35 mi) northeast of Damascus.

English and French are widely spoken as second languages, but English is more often used.^[337]

Religion

Main articles: Religion in Syria, Islam in Syria, and Christianity in Syria

Great Mosque of Aleppo, Aleppo

Sunni Muslims make up around 74% of Syria's population^[9] and Sunni Arabs account for 59–60% of the population. Most Kurds (8.5%)^[338] and most Turkmens (3%)^[338] are Sunni and account for the difference between Sunnis and Sunni Arabs, while 3% of Syrians are Shia Muslims (particularly Ismailis, and Twelvers but there are also Arabs, Kurds and Turkmens), 10% Alawites, 10% Christians^[9] (the majority are Antiochian Greek Orthodox, the rest are Syriac Orthodox, Greek Catholic and other Catholic Rites, Armenian Orthodox, Assyrian Church of the East, Protestants and other denominations), and 3% Druzes.^[9] Druze number around 500,000, and concentrate mainly in the southern area of Jabal al-Druze.^[339]

President Bashar al-Assad's family is Alawite and Alawites dominate the government of Syria and hold key military positions.^{[88][340][341]} In May 2013, SOHR stated that out of 94,000 killed during the Syrian Civil War, at least 41,000 were Alawites.^[342]

Christians numbering 1.2 million, a sizable number of whom are found among Syria's population of Palestinian and Iraqi refugees, are divided into several sects. The Greek Orthodox make up 45.7% of the Christian population; the Syriac Orthodox make up 22.4%; the Armenian Orthodox make up 10.9%; the Catholics (including Greek Catholic, Syriac Catholic, Armenian Catholic, Maronite, Chaldean Catholic and Latin) make up 16.2%; Assyrian Church of the East and several smaller Christian denominations account for the remainder. Many Christian monasteries also exist. Many Christian Syrians belong to a high socio-economic class.^[343] As per one estimate, the count of Christians affiliated with established denominations in Syria has dropped from approximately 2.5 million before the civil war, to about 500,000 in 2023.^[344]

Syria was once home to a substantial population of Jews, with large communities in Damascus, Aleppo, and Qamishii.^[345] Due to a combination of persecution in Syria and opportunities elsewhere, the Jews began to emigrate in the second half of the 19th century to Great Britain, the United States, and Israel.^[345] The process was completed with the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948.^[345] The remaining Jewish population dwindled as a result of the civil war. Today 100 Jews still live in Syria.^[345] The United States is home to a large Syrian Jewish community, which is still considered as Syrian citizens, by the Syrian government.

Education

Main article: Education in Syria

Faculty of Arts and Humanities in Aleppo University

Education is free and compulsory from ages 6 to 12. Schooling consists of 6 years of primary education followed by a 3-year general or vocational training period and a 3-year academic or vocational program. The second 3-year period of academic training is required for university admission. Total enrollment at post-secondary schools is over 150,000. The literacy rate of Syrians aged 15 and older is 90.7% for males and 82.2% for females.^[346][347]

UIS adult literacy rate of Syria

Since 1967, all schools, colleges, and universities have been under close government supervision by the Ba'ath Party.^[348]

There are 6 state universities in Syria^[349] and 15 private universities.^[350] The top two state universities are Damascus University (210,000 students as of 2014)^[351] and University of Aleppo.^[352] The top private universities in Syria are: Syrian Private University, Arab International University, University of Kalamoon and International University for Science and Technology. There are also many higher institutes in Syria, like the Higher Institute of Business Administration, which offer undergraduate and graduate programs in business.^[353]

According to the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities, the top-ranking universities in the country are Damascus University (3540th worldwide), the University of Aleppo (7176th) and Tishreen University (7968th).^[354]

Health

Main article: Health in Syria

In 2010, spending on healthcare accounted for 3.4% of the country's GDP. In 2008, there were 14.9 physicians and 18.5 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants.^[355] The life expectancy at birth was 75.7 years in 2010, or 74.2 years for males and 77.3 years for females.^[356]

Culture

Main article: Culture of Syria

Dabke combines circle dance and line dancing and is widely performed at weddings and other joyous occasions.

Syria is a traditional society with a long cultural history.^[357] Importance is placed on family, religion, education, self-discipline and respect. Syrians' taste for the traditional arts is expressed in dances such as the al-Samah, the Dabkeh in all their variations, and the sword dance. Marriage ceremonies and the births of children are occasions for the lively demonstration of folk customs.^[358]

Literature

Main article: Literature of Syria

Adunis

The literature of Syria has contributed to Arabic literature and has a proud tradition of oral and written poetry. Syrian writers, many of whom migrated to Egypt, played a crucial role in the nahda or Arab literary and cultural revival of the 19th century. Prominent contemporary Syrian writers include, among others, Adonis, Muhammad Maghout, Haidar Haidar, Ghada al-Samman, Nizar Qabbani and Zakariyya Tamer.

Ba'ath Party rule, since the 1966 coup, has brought about renewed censorship.^[359][360] In this context, the genre of the historical novel, spearheaded by Nabil Sulayman, Fawwaz Haddad, Khyri al-Dhahabi and Nihad Siris, is sometimes used as a means of expressing dissent, critiquing the present through a depiction of the past. Syrian folk narrative, as a subgenre of historical fiction, is imbued with magical realism, and is also used as a means of veiled criticism of the present. Salim Barakat, a Syrian émigré living in Sweden, is one of the leading figures of the genre. Contemporary Syrian literature also encompasses science fiction and futuristic utopiae (Nuhad Sharif, Talib Umran), which may also serve as media of dissent.

Music

Main article: Music of Syria

The Syrian music scene, in particular that of Damascus, has long been among the Arab world's most important, especially in the field of classical Arab music. Syria has produced several pan-Arab stars, including Asmahan, Farid al-Atrash and singer Lena Chamamyan. The city of Aleppo is known for its muwashshah, a form of Andalous sung poetry popularized by Sabri Moudallal, as well as for popular stars like Sabah Fakhri.

Media

Suzan Najm Aldeen – a popular Syrian actress in the Arab world

Television was introduced to Syria and Egypt in 1960, when both were part of the United Arab Republic. It broadcast in black and white until 1976. Syrian soap operas have considerable market penetration throughout the eastern Arab world.^[361]

Nearly all of Syria's media outlets are state-owned, and the Ba'ath Party controls nearly all newspapers.^[362] The authorities operate several intelligence agencies,^[363] among them Shu'bat al-Mukhabarat al-'Askariyya, employing many operatives.^[364] During the Syrian Civil War many of Syria's artists, poets, writers and activists have been incarcerated, and some have been killed, including famed cartoonist Akram Raslan.^[365]

Cuisine

Main article: Syrian cuisine

Fattoush, a Syrian bread salad

Syrian cuisine is rich and varied in its ingredients, linked to the regions of Syria where a specific dish has originated. Syrian food mostly consists of Southern Mediterranean, Greek, and Southwest Asian dishes. Some Syrian dishes also evolved from Turkish and French cooking: dishes like shish kebab, stuffed zucchini/courgette, and yabraʾ (stuffed grape leaves, the word yabraʾ deriving from the Turkish word yaprak, meaning leaf).

The main dishes that form Syrian cuisine are kibbeh, hummus, tabbouleh, fattoush, labneh, shawarma, mujaddara, shanklish, pastırma, sujuk and baklava. Baklava is made of filo pastry filled with chopped nuts and soaked in honey. Syrians often serve selections of appetizers, known as meze, before the main course. Za'atar, minced beef, and cheese manakish are popular hors d'œuvres. The Arabic flatbread khubz is always eaten together with meze.

Drinks in Syria vary, depending on the time of day and the occasion. Arabic coffee is the most well-known hot drink, usually prepared in the morning at breakfast or in the evening. It is usually served for guests or after food. Arak, an alcoholic drink, is a well-known beverage, served mostly on special occasions. Other Syrian beverages include ayran, jallab, white coffee, and a locally manufactured beer called Al Shark.^[366]

See also

• Index of Syria-related articles
• International recognition of the Syrian National Council
• Outline of syria

References

Notes

1. Arabic: سُورِيَا, romanized: Sūriyā, or سُورِيَة, Sūriya.
2. Arabic: الجمهورية العربية السورية, romanized: al-Jumhūriyya al-ʿArabiyya as-Sūriyya.
3. Sources:

   • ^[12]
   • Alsharif, Asma (16 August 2012). "Organization of Islamic Cooperation suspends Syria". Reuters. Archived from the original on 22 September 2022.
   • "Islamic bloc suspends Syria membership over crisis". DW News. 16 August 2012. Archived from the original on 27 June 2018.
   • "Organisation of Islamic Cooperation suspends Syria". Ahram Online. 16 August 2012. Archived from the original on 1 July 2018.
   • "OIC Suspends Syria Over Crackdown". RFE/RL. 16 August 2012. Archived from the original on 8 February 2023.
4. Sources:^{[137][138][139][140][141][142][143][144]}
5. ^{[146][147][148][149]}
6. Sources describing Syria as a totalitarian state:

   • Khamis, B. Gold, Vaughn, Sahar, Paul, Katherine (2013). "22. Propaganda in Egypt and Syria's "Cyberwars": Contexts, Actors, Tools, and Tactics". In Auerbach, Castronovo, Jonathan, Russ (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Propaganda Studies. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 422. ISBN 978-0-19-976441-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
   • Wieland, Carsten (2018). "6: De-neutralizing Aid: All Roads Lead to Damascus". Syria and the Neutrality Trap: The Dilemmas of Delivering Humanitarian Aid Through Violent Regimes. London: I. B. Tauris. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-7556-4138-3.
   • Meininghaus, Esther (2016). "Introduction". Creating Consent in Ba'thist Syria: Women and Welfare in a Totalitarian State. I. B. Tauris. pp. 1–33. ISBN 978-1-78453-115-7.
   • Sadiki, Larbi; Fares, Obaida (2014). "12: The Arab Spring Comes to Syria: Internal Mobilization for Democratic Change, Militarization and Internationalization". Routledge Handbook of the Arab Spring: Rethinking Democratization. Routledge. p. 147. ISBN 978-0-415-52391-2.
7. The name "Rojava" ("The West") was initially used by the region's PYD-led government, before its usage was dropped in 2016.^{[202][203][204]} Since then, the name is still used by locals and international observers.
8. Sources:

   • ^[12]
   • Alsharif, Asma (16 August 2012). "Organization of Islamic Cooperation suspends Syria". Reuters. Archived from the original on 22 September 2022.
   • "Islamic bloc suspends Syria membership over crisis". DW News. 16 August 2012. Archived from the original on 27 June 2018.
   • "Organisation of Islamic Cooperation suspends Syria". Ahram Online. 16 August 2012. Archived from the original on 1 July 2018.
   • "OIC Suspends Syria Over Crackdown". RFE/RL. 16 August 2012. Archived from the original on 8 February 2023.

Citations

1. "Constitution of the Syrian Arab Republic – 2012" (PDF). International Labour Organization. Retrieved 31 August 2020.
2. "Syria: People and society". The World Factbook. CIA. 10 May 2022. Archived from the original on 3 February 2021. Retrieved 30 December 2021.
3. "Syria (10/03)".
4. "Syria's Religious, Ethnic Groups". 20 December 2012.
5. • "Syrian Arab Republic". Federal Foreign Office. 13 January 2023. Archived from the original on 25 March 2023. System of government: Officially a socialist,... democratic state; presidential system (ruled by the al-Assad family, with the security services occupying a powerful position)
   • "Syria: Government". CIA World Factbook. Archived from the original on 3 February 2021.
   • "Syria Government". Archived from the original on 27 January 2023.
   • "Syrian Arab Republic: Constitution, 2012". refworld. 26 February 2021. Archived from the original on 5 March 2019.
6. • Khamis, B. Gold, Vaughn, Sahar, Paul, Katherine (2013). "22. Propaganda in Egypt and Syria's "Cyberwars": Contexts, Actors, Tools, and Tactics". In Auerbach, Castronovo, Jonathan, Russ (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Propaganda Studies. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 422. ISBN 978-0-19-976441-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
   • Wieland, Carsten (2018). "6: De-neutralizing Aid: All Roads Lead to Damascus". Syria and the Neutrality Trap: The Dilemmas of Delivering Humanitarian Aid Through Violent Regimes. London: I. B. Tauris. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-7556-4138-3.
   • Ahmed, Saladdin (2019). Totalitarian Space and the Destruction of Aura. Albany, New York: Suny Press. pp. 144, 149. ISBN 9781438472911.
   • Hensman, Rohini (2018). "7: The Syrian Uprising". Indefensible: Democracy, Counterrevolution, and the Rhetoric of Anti-Imperialism. Chicago, Illinois: Haymarket Books. ISBN 978-1-60846-912-3.
7. "Syrian ministry of foreign affairs". Archived from the original on 11 May 2012.
8. "WorldMeter". m. Retrieved 6 November 2024. {{cite web}}: Text "archive- https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/syria-population/" ignored (help)
9. "Syria". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from the original on 3 February 2021. Retrieved 7 April 2021.
10. "World Bank GINI index". World Bank. Archived from the original on 9 February 2015. Retrieved 22 January 2013.
11. "HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2023-24" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. United Nations Development Programme. 13 March 2024. pp. 274–277. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 May 2024. Retrieved 3 May 2024.
12. "Regional group votes to suspend Syria; rebels claim downing of jet". CNN. 14 August 2012. Archived from the original on 15 August 2012. Retrieved 14 August 2012.
13. Rollinger, Robert (2006). "The terms "Assyria" and "Syria" again". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 65 (4): 284–287. doi:10.1086/511103. ISSN 0022-2968. S2CID 162760021.
14. Frye, R. N. (1992). "Assyria and Syria: Synonyms". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 51 (4): 281–285. doi:10.1086/373570. S2CID 161323237.
15. Adam (781). "Translation of the Nestorian Inscription". Stele to the Propagation in China of the Jingjiao of Daqin. Translated by Wylie, Alexander. Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 2 March 2023.
16. Herodotus. The History of Herodotus (Rawlinson). Archived from the original on 4 October 2022. Retrieved 19 January 2023.
17. Joseph, John (2008). "Assyria and Syria: Synonyms?" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 May 2013. Retrieved 21 July 2009.
18. First proposed by Theodor Nöldeke in 1881; cf. Harper, Douglas (November 2001). "Syria". Online Etymology Dictionary. Archived from the original on 13 May 2013. Retrieved 13 June 2007.
19. Rollinger, Robert (1 October 2006). "The Terms "Assyria" and "Syria" Again". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 65 (4): 283–287. doi:10.1086/511103. ISSN 0022-2968. S2CID 162760021. Archived from the original on 19 January 2023. Retrieved 19 January 2023.
20. Pliny (March 1998). "Book 5 Section 66". Natural History. 77AD. University of Chicago. ISBN 978-84-249-1901-6. Archived from the original on 6 February 2024. Retrieved 20 February 2021.
21. "Syria :: Roman provincial organization". Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 19 December 2009. Retrieved 25 October 2008.
22. Tobolczyk, Marta (18 September 2020). The Art of Building at the Dawn of Human Civilization: The Ontogenesis of Architecture. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 978-1-5275-5971-4.
23. "Tell Qaramel". pcma.uw.edu.pl. Retrieved 14 September 2024.
24. Pettinato, Giovanni. The Archives of Ebla; Gelb, I. J. "Thoughts about Ibla: A Preliminary Evaluation" in Monographic Journals of the Near East, Syro-Mesopotamian Studies 1/1 (May 1977) pp. 3–30.
25. William J. Hamblin (2006). Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC: Holy Warriors at the Dawn of History. Routledge. p. 239. ISBN 978-1-134-52062-6.
26. Ian Shaw; Robert Jameson (2008). A Dictionary of Archaeology. John Wiley & Sons. p. 211. ISBN 978-0-470-75196-1.
27. Ross Burns (2009). Monuments of Syria: A Guide. I.B.Tauris. p. 155. ISBN 978-0-85771-489-3.
28. Paolo Matthiae; Nicoló Marchetti (31 May 2013). Ebla and its Landscape: Early State Formation in the Ancient Near East. Left Coast Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-1-61132-228-6.
29. Victor Harold Matthews; Don C. Benjamin (1997). Old Testament Parallels: Laws and Stories from the Ancient Near East. Paulist Press. p. 241. ISBN 978-0-8091-3731-2.
30. "About the Ancient Area of Greater Syria". ThoughtCo. Archived from the original on 8 July 2017. Retrieved 19 January 2023.
31. Kenneth Anderson Kitchen (2003). On the Reliability of the Old Testament. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 285. ISBN 978-0-8028-4960-1.
32. Stephen C. Neff (2014). Justice among Nations. Harvard University Press. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-674-72654-3.
33. "The Aramaic Language and Its Classification" (PDF). Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies. 14 (1). Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 September 2008. Retrieved 17 February 2008.
34. Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. OUP Oxford. p. 16. ISBN 978-0-19-100292-2.
35. Cyrus Herzl Gordon; Gary Rendsburg; Nathan H. Winter (1990). Eblaitica: Essays on the Ebla Archives and Eblaite Language, Volume 4. Eisenbrauns. p. 68. ISBN 978-1-57506-060-6.
36. John F. Healey (1990). The Early Alphabet. University of California Press. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-520-07309-8.
37. "Neolithic Tell Ramad in the Damascus Basin of Syria". Archive. Archived from the original on 11 November 2006. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
38. Stephanie Dalley (2002). Mari and Karana: Two Old Babylonian Cities. Gorgias Press. p. 44. ISBN 978-1-931956-02-4.
39. Nadav Naʼaman (2005). Canaan in the Second Millennium B.C.E. Eisenbrauns. p. 285. ISBN 978-1-57506-113-9.
40. Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards (1973). The Cambridge Ancient History. Cambridge University Press. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-521-08230-3.
41. William J. Hamblin (2006). Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC. Routledge. p. 259. ISBN 978-1-134-52062-6.
42. Jack M. Sasson (1969). The Military Establishments at Mari. p. 2+3.
43. Relations between God and Man in the Hurro-Hittite Song of Release, Mary R. Bachvarova, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Jan–Mar SAAD 2005
44. "The foreigners of the fourth register, with long hairstyles and calf-length fringed robes, are labeled Chiefs of Retjenu, the ancient name tor the Syrian region. Like the Nubians, they come with animals, in this case horses, an elephant, and a bear; they also offer weapons and vessels most likely filled with precious substance." in Hawass, Zahi A.; Vannini, Sandro (2009). The lost tombs of Thebes: life in paradise. Thames & Hudson. p. 120. ISBN 9780500051597.
45. Zakrzewski, Sonia; Shortland, Andrew; Rowland, Joanne (2015). Science in the Study of Ancient Egypt. Routledge. p. 268. ISBN 978-1-317-39195-1.
46. John Lange (2006). The Philosophy of Historiography. Open Road Integrated Media, Incorporated. p. 475. ISBN 978-1-61756-132-0.
47. Immanuel Velikovsky (2010). Ramses II and His Time. Paradigma. p. 23. ISBN 978-1-906833-74-9.
48. Douglas Frayne (1981). Ugarit in Retrospect. Eisenbrauns. p. 23,24,25. ISBN 978-0-931464-07-2.
49. Georges Roux, Ancient Iraq, 3rd ed., Penguin Books, London, 1991, p.381
50. Rollinger, Robert (2006). "The terms "Assyria" and "Syria" again"". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 65 (4): 284–287. doi:10.1086/511103. S2CID 162760021. Archived from the original on 19 January 2023. Retrieved 19 January 2023.
51. Hist. xviii., vii. 1
52. Charlotte Higgins (13 October 2009). "When Syrians, Algerians and Iraqis patrolled Hadrian's Wall". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 8 September 2013. Retrieved 13 December 2016.
53. Palmyra: Mirage in the Desert, Joan Aruz, 2018, page 78.
54. Cavendish Corporation, Marshall (2006). World and Its Peoples. Marshall Cavendish. p. 183. ISBN 978-0-7614-7571-2.
55. Acts 9:1–43
56. Muir, William (1861), The life of Mahomet, Smith, Elder & Co, pp. 225–226
57. "Military Platoons and Missions between the Battle of Uhud and the Battle of the Confederates". 23 June 2011. pp. 193–194. Archived from the original on 23 June 2011. Retrieved 19 January 2023.
58. Montgomery Watt W. (1956). Muhammad At Medina. Osmania University, Digital Library Of India. Oxford At The Clarendon Press. p. 35. This expedition receives scant notice in the sources, but in some ways it is the most significant so far. As Dumah was some 800 km (500 mi) from Medina there can have been no immediate threat to Muhammad, but it may be, as Caetani suggests, 1 that communications with Syria were being interrupted and supplies to Medina stopped. It is tempting to suppose that was already envisaging something of the expansion which took place after his death.
59. "The Art of the Umayyad Period (661–750)". Met Museum. Archived from the original on 20 September 2020. Retrieved 21 July 2020.
60. "Syria: History". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 25 May 2015. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
61. Farhad Daftary. A Short History of the Ismailis. 1998, Edinburg, UK. Edinburg University Press. Page 146.
62. Timeframe AD 1200–1300: The Mongol Conquests. Time-Life Books. 1989. pp. 59–75. ISBN 978-0-8094-6437-1.
63. "Battle of Aleppo". Everything2.com. 22 February 2003. Archived from the original on 26 June 2007. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
64. "The Eastern Mediterranean, 1400–1600 A.D". Metmuseum.org. Archived from the original on 28 April 2009. Retrieved 23 April 2011.
65. "Is This the End of Christianity in the Middle East?". The New York Times. 22 July 2015. Archived from the original on 22 July 2015. Retrieved 8 January 2021.
66. "Syria – Ottoman". Library of Congress Country Studies. Archived from the original on 5 November 2015. Retrieved 25 January 2013. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
67. a b Stanford J. Shaw, "Dynamics of Ottoman Society and administration", in "History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey"
68. Pouring a People into the Desert:The "Definitive Solution" of the Unionists to the Armenian Question, Fuat Dundar, A Question of Genocide, ed. Ronald Grigor Suny, Fatma Muge Gocek and Norman M. Naimark, (Oxford University Press, 2011), 280–281.
69. "Mandat Syrie-Liban" (PDF) (in French). Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 June 2008. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
70. James Barr (2011). a line in the sand. Britain, France and the struggle that shaped the Middle East. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1-84737-453-0.
71. Peter N. Stearns; William Leonard Langer (2001). "The Middle East, p. 761". The Encyclopedia of World History. Houghton Mifflin Books. ISBN 978-0-395-65237-4.
72. "Background Note: Syria". United States Department of State, Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, May 2007. Archived from the original on 22 July 2019. Retrieved 21 May 2019. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
73. Gelber, 2006, pp. 138
74. Morris, 2008, pp. 253, 254
75. Tal, 2004, pp. 251
76. "Syria: World War II and independence". Britannica Online Encyclopedia. 23 May 2023. Archived from the original on 26 September 2010. Retrieved 23 October 2008.
77. Chen, Chern (8 August 2018). "Former Nazi Officers in the Near East: German Military Advisors in Syria, 1949–56". The International History Review. 40 (4): 732–751. doi:10.1080/07075332.2017.1367705. ISSN 0707-5332. S2CID 158837784.
78. Robson, John (10 February 2012). "Syria hasn't changed, but the world has". Toronto Sun. Archived from the original on 18 January 2016. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
79. Brecher, Michael; Jonathan Wilkenfeld (1997). A Study of Crisis. University of Michigan Press. pp. 345–346. ISBN 978-0-472-10806-0.
80. Wieland, Carsten (2021). Syria and the Neutrality Trap. New York: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-0-7556-4138-3.
81. Atassi, Karim (2018). "6: The Fourth Republic". Syria, the Strength of an Idea: The Constitutional Architectures of Its Political Regimes. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 252. doi:10.1017/9781316872017. ISBN 978-1-107-18360-5.
82. "Salah Jadid, 63, Leader of Syria Deposed and Imprisoned by Assad". The New York Times. 24 August 1993. Archived from the original on 17 January 2018. Retrieved 18 February 2017.
83. Seale, Patrick (1988). Asad: The Struggle for the Middle East. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-06976-3.
84. Mark A. Tessler (1994). A History of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Indiana University Press. p. 382. ISBN 978-0-253-20873-6.
85. "A Campaign for the Books". Time. 1 September 1967. Archived from the original on 15 December 2008.
86. Line Khatib (23 May 2012). Islamic Revivalism in Syria: The Rise and Fall of Ba'thist Secularism. Routledge. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-415-78203-6.
87. "Jordan asked Nixon to attack Syria, declassified papers show". CNN. 28 November 2007. Archived from the original on 25 February 2008. Retrieved 25 October 2008.
88. Michael Bröning (7 March 2011). "The Sturdy House That Assad Built". Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original on 7 May 2011. Retrieved 10 March 2011.
89. P. Miller, H. Rand, Andrew, Dafna (2020). "2: The Syrian Crucible and Future U.S. Options". Re-Engaging the Middle East. Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution Press. p. 28. ISBN 9780815737629.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
90. Rabinovich, Abraham (2005). The Yom Kippur War: The Epic Encounter That Transformed the Middle East. New York City: Schocken Books. p. 302. ISBN 978-0-8052-4176-1.
91. Itzchak Weismann. "Sufism and Sufi Brotherhoods in Syria and Palestine". University of Oklahoma. Archived from the original on 24 February 2009. Retrieved 30 January 2013.
92. Wright 2008: 243-244
93. Amos, Deborah (2 February 2012). "30 Years Later, Photos Emerge From Killings In Syria". NPR. Archived from the original on 2 February 2012.
94. Marc Perelman (11 July 2003). "Syria Makes Overture Over Negotiations". Forward.com. Archived from the original on 18 April 2006. Retrieved 25 October 2008.
95. George, Alan (2003). Syria: neither bread nor freedom. London: Zed Books. pp. 56–58. ISBN 978-1-84277-213-3.
96. Ghadry, Farid N. (Winter 2005). "Syrian Reform: What Lies Beneath". The Middle East Quarterly. Archived from the original on 4 March 2011. Retrieved 10 March 2011.
97. "Profile: Syria's Bashar al-Assad". BBC News. Archived from the original on 2 October 2008. Retrieved 25 October 2008.
98. Huggler, Justin (6 October 2003). "Israel launches strikes on Syria in retaliation for bomb attack". The Independent. London. Archived from the original on 15 May 2011. Retrieved 23 October 2008.
99. "Naharnet Newsdesk – Syria Curbs Kurdish Riots for a Merger with Iraq's Kurdistan". Naharnet.com. Archived from the original on 15 January 2009. Retrieved 25 October 2008.
100. Guerin, Orla (6 March 2005). "Syria sidesteps Lebanon demands". BBC News. Archived from the original on 3 December 2012. Retrieved 28 April 2010.
101. "Last Syrian troops out of Lebanon". Los Angeles Times. 27 April 2005. Archived from the original on 3 October 2018. Retrieved 17 March 2020.
102. Sanger, David (14 October 2007). "Israel Struck Syrian Nuclear Project, Analysts Say". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 16 April 2009. Retrieved 15 October 2007.
103. "Syrian army tanks 'moving towards Hama'". BBC News. 5 May 2011. Archived from the original on 20 January 2012. Retrieved 20 January 2012.
104. "'Dozens killed' in Syrian border town". Al Jazeera. 17 May 2011. Archived from the original on 5 November 2012. Retrieved 12 June 2011.
105. "'Defected Syria security agent' speaks out". Al Jazeera. 8 June 2011. Archived from the original on 13 June 2012. Retrieved 21 June 2011.
106. "Syrian army starts crackdown in northern town". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 17 June 2011. Retrieved 12 June 2011.
107. Sengupta, Kim (20 February 2012). "Syria's sectarian war goes international as foreign fighters and arms pour into country". The Independent. Antakya. Archived from the original on 22 February 2012. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
108. "Syrian Observatory for Human Rights". Syriahr.com. Archived from the original on 21 April 2014. Retrieved 17 May 2012.
109. "Arab League delegates head to Syria over 'bloodbath'". USA Today. 22 December 2011. Archived from the original on 8 January 2012. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
110. "Number as a civil / military". Translate.googleusercontent.com. Retrieved 6 February 2012.
111. Enders, David (19 April 2012). "Syria's Farouq rebels battle to hold onto Qusayr, last outpost near Lebanese border". Myrtlebeachonline.com. Archived from the original on 25 October 2014. Retrieved 17 May 2012.
112. "Syria: Opposition, almost 11,500 civilians killed". Ansamed.ansa.it. 3 January 2010. Archived from the original on 28 March 2014. Retrieved 17 May 2012.
113. 6,143 civilians and security forces (15 March 2011-20 March 2012), Archived 2012-04-23 at the Wayback Machine 865 security forces (21 March-1 June),"Syrian Arab news agency - SANA - Syria : Syria news ::". Archived from the original on 29 October 2012. Retrieved 17 July 2012. 3,138 insurgents (15 March 2011-30 May 2012), Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine"Archived copy". Archived from the original on 25 October 2014. Retrieved 13 December 2014.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) total of 10,146 reported killed
114. "Syria: Refugees brace for more bloodshed". News24. 12 March 2012. Archived from the original on 23 October 2017. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
115. "Syrian Refugees May Be Wearing Out Turks' Welcome". NPR. 11 March 2012. Archived from the original on 2 April 2012. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
116. "Syria crisis: Turkey refugee surge amid escalation fear". BBC News. 6 April 2012. Archived from the original on 8 April 2012. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
117. "UNICEF says 400 children killed in Syria unrest". Google News. Geneva. Agence France-Presse. 7 February 2012. Archived from the original on 25 May 2012. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
118. "UNICEF: 500 children died in Syrian war". Archived from the original on 27 March 2012. Retrieved 17 April 2012.
119. "UNICEF says 400 children killed in Syria". The Courier-Mail. 8 February 2012. Archived from the original on 14 May 2013. Retrieved 16 February 2012.
120. Peralta, Eyder (3 February 2012). "Rights Group Says Syrian Security Forces Detained, Tortured Children: The Two-Way". NPR. Archived from the original on 27 April 2015. Retrieved 16 February 2012.
121. "Syrian Arab news agency - SANA - Syria : Syria news". Sana.sy. 14 February 2012. Archived from the original on 6 November 2018. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
122. Fahim, Kareem (5 January 2012). "Hundreds Tortured in Syria, Human Rights Group Says". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 13 May 2013. Retrieved 19 February 2017.
123. "Syria: Local Residents Used as Human Shields". Huffingtonpost.com. 26 March 2012. Archived from the original on 27 June 2012. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
124. "Syria: Armed Opposition Groups Committing Abuses". Human Rights Watch. 20 March 2012. Archived from the original on 21 March 2012. Retrieved 20 March 2012.
125. "Open Letter to the Leaders of the Syrian Opposition Regarding Human Rights Abuses by Armed Opposition Members". Human Rights Watch. 20 March 2012. Archived from the original on 22 March 2012. Retrieved 20 March 2012.
126. "Global Data". fragilestatesindex.org/. 2024.
127. "Syria". Reporters Without Borders. 2024. Archived from the original on 9 May 2024.
128. "Syria ranks second to last in RSF's press freedom index". Enab Baladi. 3 May 2024. Archived from the original on 3 May 2024.
129. "Middle East corruption rankings: Syria most corrupt, UAE least, Turkey slipped". Al-Monitor. 31 January 2023. Archived from the original on 3 February 2023.
130. "Syria, Yemen and Libya among 'lowest in the world' for corruption perceptions". The New Arab. 31 January 2023. Archived from the original on 8 February 2023.
131. "Corruption Perceptions Index". transparency.org. January 2024.
132. Hubbard, Ben; Saad, Hwaida (5 December 2021). "On Syria's Ruins, a Drug Empire Flourishes". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 28 December 2021. Retrieved 6 December 2021.
133. "Is the Syrian Regime the World's Biggest Drug Dealer?". Vice World News. 14 December 2022. Archived from the original on 15 December 2022.
134. "Syria has become a narco-state". The Economist. 19 July 2021. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 27 December 2023.
135. Rose, Söderholm, Caroline, Alexander (April 2022). "The Captagon Threat: A Profile of Illicit Trade, Consumption, and Regional Realities" (PDF). New Lines Institute. pp. 2–39. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 April 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
136. "Syrian Revolution 13 years on | Nearly 618,000 persons killed since the onset of the revolution in March 2011". SOHR. 15 March 2024.
137. "Assad, Iran, Russia committed 91% of civilian killings in Syria". Middle East Monitor. 20 June 2022. Archived from the original on 4 January 2023.
138. "Civilian Death Toll". SNHR. September 2022. Archived from the original on 5 March 2022.
139. "91 percent of civilian deaths caused by Syrian regime and Russian forces: rights group". The New Arab. 19 June 2022. Archived from the original on 5 January 2023.
140. "2020 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Syria". U.S Department of State. Archived from the original on 2 July 2022.
141. "In Syria's Civilian Death Toll, The Islamic State Group, Or ISIS, Is A Far Smaller Threat Than Bashar Assad". SOHR. 11 January 2015. Archived from the original on 6 April 2022.
142. "Assad's War on the Syrian People Continues". SOHR. 11 March 2021. Archived from the original on 13 March 2021.
143. Roth, Kenneth (9 January 2017). "Barack Obama's Shaky Legacy on Human Rights". Human Rights Watch. Archived from the original on 2 February 2021.
144. "The Regional War in Syria: Summary of Caabu event with Christopher Phillips". Council for Arab-British Understanding. Archived from the original on 9 December 2016. Retrieved 5 January 2023.
145. "UNHCR Syria Regional Refugee Response". United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). Archived from the original on 19 February 2018. Retrieved 9 August 2013.
146. "Syria: Unprecedented rise in poverty rate, significant shortfall in humanitarian aid funding". Reliefweb. 18 October 2022. Archived from the original on 2 November 2022.
147. "Every Day Counts: Children of Syria cannot wait any longer". unicef. 2022. Archived from the original on 13 July 2022.
148. "Hunger, poverty and rising prices: How one family in Syria bears the burden of 11 years of conflict". reliefweb. 15 March 2022. Archived from the original on 16 March 2022.
149. "UN Chief says 90% of Syrians live below poverty line". 14 January 2022. Archived from the original on 3 December 2022.
150. "Syria crisis: Qatar calls for Arabs to send in troops". BBC News. 14 January 2012. Archived from the original on 11 April 2018. Retrieved 20 June 2018.
151. "NATO rules out Syria intervention". Al Jazeera. 1 November 2011. Archived from the original on 11 November 2011. Retrieved 12 November 2011.
152. Iddon, Paul (9 June 2020). "Russia's expanding military footprint in the Middle East". Archived from the original on 19 January 2023. Retrieved 19 January 2023.
153. MacFarquhar, Neil (12 November 2011). "Arab League Votes to Suspend Syria". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 13 November 2011. Retrieved 12 November 2011.
154. Teller, Neville (2014). The Search for Détente. p. 183.
155. "Syria's Stalemate Has Only Benefitted Assad and His Backers". United States Institute of Peace. Retrieved 15 June 2024.
156. F. A. Schaeffer, Claude (2003). Syria and the Cradle of Civilization: The Findings of Claude F a Schaeffer in Ras Shamra. Trubner & Company. ISBN 978-1-84453-129-5.
157. Egyptian Journal of Geology – Volume 42, Issue 1 – Page 263, 1998
158. Dinerstein, Eric; et al. (2017). "An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm". BioScience. 67 (6): 534–545. doi:10.1093/biosci/bix014. ISSN 0006-3568. PMC 5451287. PMID 28608869.
159. Grantham, H. S.; et al. (2020). "Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material". Nature Communications. 11 (1): 5978. Bibcode:2020NatCo..11.5978G. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 7723057. PMID 33293507.
160. • "Syrian Arab Republic". Federal Foreign Office. 13 January 2023. Archived from the original on 25 March 2023.
     • "Syria: Government". CIA World Factbook. Archived from the original on 3 February 2021.
     • "Syria Government". Archived from the original on 27 January 2023.
     • "Syrian Arab Republic: Constitution, 2012". refworld. 26 February 2021. Archived from the original on 5 March 2019.
161. "Syria: Government". CIA World Factbook. Archived from the original on 3 February 2021.
162. "Syrian Arab Republic: Constitution, 2012". refworld. 26 February 2021. Archived from the original on 5 March 2019.
163. "Freedom in the World 2023: Syria". Freedom House. Archived from the original on 9 March 2023.
164. Lucas, Scott (25 February 2021). "How Assad Regime Tightened Syria's One-Party Rule". EA Worldview. Archived from the original on 25 February 2021.
165. Szmolk, Inmaculada (2017). Political Change in the Middle East and North Africa: After the Arab Spring. Edinburgh, United Kingdom: Edinburgh University Press. pp. 132–133, 414–417. ISBN 978-1-4744-1528 6.
166. • Khamis, B. Gold, Vaughn, Sahar, Paul, Katherine (2013). "22. Propaganda in Egypt and Syria's "Cyberwars": Contexts, Actors, Tools, and Tactics". In Auerbach, Castronovo, Jonathan, Russ (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Propaganda Studies. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 422. ISBN 978-0-19-976441-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
     • Wieland, Carsten (2018). "6: De-neutralizing Aid: All Roads Lead to Damascus". Syria and the Neutrality Trap: The Dilemmas of Delivering Humanitarian Aid Through Violent Regimes. London: I. B. Tauris. p. 68. ISBN 978-0-7556-4138-3.
     • Ahmed, Saladdin (2019). Totalitarian Space and the Destruction of Aura. Albany, New York: Suny Press. pp. 144, 149. ISBN 9781438472911.
     • Hensman, Rohini (2018). "7: The Syrian Uprising". Indefensible: Democracy, Counterrevolution, and the Rhetoric of Anti-Imperialism. Chicago, Illinois: Haymarket Books. ISBN 978-1-60846-912-3.
167. "Freedom in the World 2023: Syria". Freedom House. Archived from the original on 9 March 2023.
168. "Freedom in the World: 2023" (PDF) (50th anniversary ed.). March 2023: 31. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 May 2023. Retrieved 12 May 2023 – via Freedom House. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
169. "Constitution of Syria. Articles 83–118". 15 February 2012. Archived from the original on 2 May 2020. Retrieved 30 January 2013 – via Scribd.
170. "Syria". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 14 February 2024.
171. "Constitution of Syria. Article 75(1)2)(4)". 15 February 2012. Archived from the original on 2 May 2020. Retrieved 30 January 2013 – via Scribd.
172. "Constitution of Syria. Article 77(2)". 15 February 2012. Archived from the original on 2 May 2020. Retrieved 30 January 2013 – via Scribd.
173. Wedeen, Lisa (2015). Ambiguities of Domination: Politics, Rhetoric, and Symbols in Contemporary Syria. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. ix–xii, 1–4, 16–18, 30–40. doi:10.7208/9780226345536 (inactive 1 November 2024). ISBN 978-0-226-33337-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
174. Rubin, Barry (2015). The Middle East. New York: Routledge. pp. 58, 233. ISBN 978-0-7656-8094-5.
175. Al-Shami, Meckfessel, Leila, Shon (1 August 2023). "Why the US Far Right Loves Bashar al-Assad". Archived from the original on 25 March 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
176. Phillips, Christopher (2013). Everyday Arab Identity. New York: Routledge. pp. 49–70. ISBN 978-0-415-68488-0.
177. "Syria (05/07)". State.gov. Archived from the original on 22 July 2019. Retrieved 25 October 2008. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
178. "Constitution of Syria". Archived from the original on 6 April 2008. Retrieved 22 October 2008.
179. Alianak, Sonia (2007). Middle Eastern Leaders and Islam: A Precarious Equilibrium. Peter Lang. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-8204-6924-9.
180. "Syria: Elections without Politics". Carnegie Endowment. Archived from the original on 15 September 2004. Retrieved 10 March 2011.
181. Schlager, Weisblatt, Neil, Jayne; A. Faksh, Mahmud (2006). "Syrian Arab Republic". World Encyclopedia of Political Systems and Parties (4th ed.). New York: Facts on File. p. 1303. ISBN 0-8160-5953-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
182. "Syria clamps down on Kurd parties". BBC News. 3 June 2004. Archived from the original on 18 December 2008. Retrieved 22 October 2008.
183. "Freedom in the World 2023: Syria". Freedom House. Archived from the original on 9 March 2023.
184. "Decrees on Ending State of Emergency, Abolishing SSSC, Regulating Right to Peaceful Demonstration". Syrian Arab News Agency. 22 April 2011. Archived from the original on 28 March 2012. Retrieved 30 January 2013.
185. "Syria". Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. p. 13. Archived from the original on 18 January 2006. Retrieved 20 February 2013.
186. "Syria (Syrian Arab Republic)". Law.emory.edu. Archived from the original on 21 August 2001. Retrieved 18 February 2013.
187. Black, Ian (26 March 2013). "Syrian opposition takes Arab League seat". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 21 August 2013. Retrieved 13 December 2016.
188. "Syria conflict: UK recognises opposition, says William Hague". BBC. 20 November 2012. Archived from the original on 20 November 2012. Retrieved 28 August 2013.
189. Hugh Schofield (13 November 2012). "Syria: France backs anti-Assad coalition". BBC. Archived from the original on 11 October 2017. Retrieved 28 August 2013.
190. Madhani, Aamer (12 December 2012). "Obama says U.S. will recognize Syrian opposition". USA Today. Archived from the original on 19 January 2023. Retrieved 15 September 2017.
191. Shaar, Akil, Karam, Samy (28 January 2021). "Inside Syria's Clapping Chamber: Dynamics of the 2020 Parliamentary Elections". Middle East Institute. Archived from the original on 28 January 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
192. Awad, Favier, Ziad, Agnès (30 April 2020). "Elections in Wartime: The Syrian People's Council (2016–2020)" (PDF). European University Institute. Archived from the original (PDF) on 29 January 2021 – via cadmus.eui.eu. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
193. Abdel Nour, Aymen (24 July 2020). "Syria's 2020 parliamentary elections: The worst joke yet". Middle East Institute. Archived from the original on 28 January 2021.
194. Αϊβαλιώτης, Γιώργος (13 April 2016). "Συρία: Βουλευτικές εκλογές για την διαπραγματευτική ενίσχυση Άσαντ". euronews.com. Archived from the original on 17 April 2016. Retrieved 15 April 2016.
195. "Εκλογές στη Συρία, ενώ η εμπόλεμη κατάσταση παραμένει". efsyn.gr. 13 April 2016. Archived from the original on 16 April 2016. Retrieved 15 April 2016.
196. Kossaify, Ephrem (22 April 2021). "UN reiterates it is not involved in Syrian presidential election". Arab News. Archived from the original on 22 April 2021.
197. Cheeseman, Nicholas (2019). How to Rig an Election. Yale University Press. pp. 140–141. ISBN 978-0-300-24665-0. OCLC 1089560229.
198. Norris, Pippa; Martinez i Coma, Ferran; Grömping, Max (2015). "The Year in Elections, 2014". Election Integrity Project. Archived from the original on 15 April 2021. Retrieved 12 May 2023. The Syrian election ranked as worst among all the contests held during 2014.
199. Abdel Nour, Aymen (24 July 2020). "Syria's 2020 parliamentary elections: The worst joke yet". Middle East Institute. Archived from the original on 28 January 2021.
200. "Electoral Integrity Global Report 2019-2021". Electoral Integrity Project. May 2022. Archived from the original on 9 December 2022.
201. Garnett, S. James, MacGregor, Holly Ann, Toby, Madison . (May 2022). "2022. Year in Elections Global Report: 2019-2021. The Electoral Integrity Project" (PDF). Electoral Integrity Project. University of East Anglia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 July 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
202. Lister (2015), p. 154. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFLister2015 (help)
203. Allsopp & van Wilgenburg (2019), p. 89. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019 (help)
204. "'Rojava' no longer exists, 'Northern Syria' adopted instead". Kurdistan24. Archived from the original on 31 December 2016. Retrieved 14 October 2022.
205. Allsopp & van Wilgenburg (2019), pp. 11, 95. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019 (help)
206. Zabad (2017), pp. 219, 228. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFZabad2017 (help)
207. Allsopp & van Wilgenburg (2019), pp. 97–98. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019 (help)
208. "Delegation from the Democratic administration of Self-participate of self-participate in the first and second conference of the Shaba region". Cantonafrin.com. 4 February 2016. Archived from the original on 9 August 2016. Retrieved 12 June 2016.
209. "Turkey's Syria offensive explained in four maps". BBC News. 14 October 2019. Archived from the original on 10 October 2019. Retrieved 1 November 2019.
210. "Syria Kurds adopt constitution for autonomous federal region". TheNewArab. 31 December 2016. Archived from the original on 5 October 2018. Retrieved 5 October 2018.
211. "Syria's war: Assad on the offensive". The Economist. 13 February 2016. Archived from the original on 23 February 2018. Retrieved 1 May 2016.
212. "Umar: Catalonian recognition of AANES is the beginning". Hawar News Agency. 26 October 2021. Archived from the original on 26 October 2021. Retrieved 27 October 2021.
213. van Wilgenburg, Wladimir (21 October 2021). "Catalan parliament recognizes administration in northeast Syria". Kurdistan24. Archived from the original on 21 October 2021. Retrieved 27 October 2021.
214. Shahvisi, Arianne (2018). "Beyond Orientalism: Exploring the Distinctive Feminism of democratic confederalism in Rojava". Geopolitics. 26 (4): 1–25. doi:10.1080/14650045.2018.1554564. S2CID 149972015. Archived from the original on 9 May 2022. Retrieved 14 October 2022.
215. "German MP Jelpke: Rojava needs help against Corona pandemic". ANF News. Archived from the original on 27 April 2021. Retrieved 14 October 2022.
216. Şimşek, Bahar; Jongerden, Joost (29 October 2018). "Gender Revolution in Rojava: The Voices beyond Tabloid Geopolitics". Geopolitics. 26 (4): 1023–1045. doi:10.1080/14650045.2018.1531283. hdl:1887/87090.
217. Burç, Rosa (22 May 2020). "Non-territorial autonomy and gender equality: The case of the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria - Rojava" (PDF). Philosophy and Society. 31 (3): 277–448. doi:10.2298/FID2003319B. S2CID 226412887. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 June 2022. Retrieved 14 October 2022.
218. Gammer, Moshe (2004). The Caspian Region: The Caucasus. Vol. 2. Routledge. p. 64. ISBN 978-0-203-00512-5. Archived from the original on 11 February 2023. Retrieved 22 October 2017.
219. Allsopp & van Wilgenburg (2019), pp. xviii, 112. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019 (help)
220. Zabad (2017), pp. 219, 228–229. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFZabad2017 (help)
221. Schmidinger, Thomas (2019). The Battle for the Mountain of the Kurds. Translated by Schiffmann, Thomas. Oakland, CA: PM Press, Kairos. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-62963-651-1. Afrin was the home to the largest Ezidi minority in Syria.
222. Allsopp & van Wilgenburg (2019), pp. xviii, 66, 200. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019 (help)
223. "Syria Kurds challenging traditions, promote civil marriage". ARA News. 20 February 2016. Archived from the original on 22 February 2016. Retrieved 23 August 2016.
224. Zabad (2017), p. 219. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFZabad2017 (help)
225. Allsopp & van Wilgenburg (2019), pp. 156–163. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019 (help)
226. "PYD leader: SDF operation for Raqqa countryside in progress, Syria can only be secular". ARA News. 28 May 2016. Archived from the original on 1 October 2016. Retrieved 8 October 2016.
227. Ross, Carne (30 September 2015). "The Kurds' Democratic Experiment". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 18 June 2019. Retrieved 20 May 2016.
228. In der Maur, Renée; Staal, Jonas (2015). "Introduction". Stateless Democracy (PDF). Utrecht: BAK. p. 19. ISBN 978-90-77288-22-1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 October 2016. Retrieved 19 April 2016.
229. Jongerden, Joost (6 December 2012). "Rethinking Politics and Democracy in the Middle East" (PDF). Ekurd.net. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 March 2016. Retrieved 9 October 2016.
230. Allsopp & van Wilgenburg (2019), pp. 94, 130–131, 184. sfnp error: no target: CITEREFAllsoppvan_Wilgenburg2019 (help)
231. Knapp, Michael; Jongerden, Joost (2014). "Communal Democracy: The Social Contract and Confederalism in Rojava". Comparative Islamic Studies. 10 (1): 87–109. doi:10.1558/cis.29642. ISSN 1743-1638. Archived from the original on 19 January 2023. Retrieved 19 January 2023.
232. Küçük, Bülent; Özselçuk, Ceren (1 January 2016). "The Rojava Experience: Possibilities and Challenges of Building a Democratic Life". South Atlantic Quarterly. 115 (1): 184–196. doi:10.1215/00382876-3425013. Archived from the original on 27 April 2022. Retrieved 14 October 2022 – via read.dukeupress.edu.
233. Barkhoda, Dalir. "The Experiment of the Rojava System in Grassroots Participatory Democracy: Its Theoretical Foundation, Structure, and Strategies". Archived from the original on 8 April 2023. Retrieved 19 January 2023. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
234. Gerber, Damian; Brincat, Shannon (2018). "When Öcalan met Bookchin: The Kurdish Freedom Movement and the Political Theory of Democratic Confederalism". Geopolitics. 26 (4): 1–25. doi:10.1080/14650045.2018.1508016. S2CID 150297675. Archived from the original on 27 April 2022. Retrieved 14 October 2022.
235. "NATION-BUILDING IN ROJAVA: PARTICIPATORY DEMOCRACY AMIDST THE SYRIAN CIVL WAR" (PDF). Imemo.ru. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 June 2022. Retrieved 4 December 2021.
236. "RUPTURES AND RIPPLE EFFECTS IN THE MIDDLE EAST AND BEYOND" (PDF). Repository.bilkent.edu.tr. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 July 2021. Retrieved 4 December 2021.
237. "Report: Syrian army to enter SDF-held Kobani, Manbij". Reuters. 14 October 2019. Archived from the original on 13 October 2019. Retrieved 1 November 2019.
238. "Syrian army to deploy along Turkish border in deal with Kurdish-led forces". Reuters. 14 October 2019. Archived from the original on 22 October 2019. Retrieved 1 November 2019.
239. "Syrian army moves to confront Turkish forces as US withdraws". Times of Israel. 14 October 2019. Archived from the original on 14 October 2019. Retrieved 1 November 2019.
240. "Syrian Kurds accuse Turkey of violations, Russia says peace plan on track". Reuters. 24 October 2019. Archived from the original on 24 October 2019. Retrieved 1 November 2019.
241. Strenger, Carlo (8 February 2012). "Assad takes a page out of Russia's book in his war against rebels". Haaretz. Archived from the original on 9 February 2012. Retrieved 15 January 2013.
242. MacFarquhar, Neil (12 November 2011). "Arab League Votes to Suspend Syria". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 13 November 2011. Retrieved 12 November 2011.
243. "Syria suspends its membership in Mediterranean union". Xinhua News Agency. 1 December 2012. Archived from the original on 6 December 2011.
244. "Arab League brings Syria back into its fold after 12 years". Al Jazeera. 7 May 2023. Archived from the original on 7 May 2023.
245. Morris, Chris (2005). "Chapter 9: Crossroads". The New Turkey. London: Granta Books. pp. 203–227. ISBN 978-1-86207-865-9.
246. Sanjian, Avedis K. (1956). "The Sanjak of Alexandretta (Hatay): Its Impact on Turkish-Syrian Relations (1939–1956)". The Middle East Journal. 10 (4): 379–394. JSTOR 4322848. Archived from the original on 22 December 2022. Retrieved 22 December 2022.
247. • "The international community maintains that the Israeli decision to impose its laws, jurisdiction and administration in the occupied Syrian Golan is null and void and without international legal effect." International Labour Office (2009). The situation of workers of the occupied Arab territories (International government publication ed.). International Labour Office. p. 23. ISBN 978-92-2-120630-9.. * "...occupied Syrian Golan Heights..." (The Arab Peace Initiative, 2002 Archived 4 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine, www.al-bab.com. Retrieved 1 August 2010.)
     • In 2008, a plenary session of the United Nations General Assembly voted by 161–1 in favor of a motion on the "occupied Syrian Golan" that reaffirmed support for UN Resolution 497. (General Assembly adopts broad range of texts, 26 in all, on recommendation of its fourth Committee, including on decolonization, information, Palestine refugees Archived 28 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine, United Nations, 5 December 2008.)
     • "the Syrian Golan Heights territory, which Israel has occupied since 1967". Also, "the Golan Heights, a 450-square mile portion of southwestern Syria that Israel occupied during the 1967 Arab-Israeli war." (CRS Issue Brief for Congress: Syria: U.S. Relations and Bilateral Issues Archived 18 September 2018 at the Wayback Machine, Congressional Research Service. 19 January 2006)
248. Occupied territory:

     • "Israeli-occupied Golan Heights" (Central Intelligence Agency. CIA World Factbook 2010, Skyhorse Publishing Inc., 2009. p. 339. ISBN 1-60239-727-9.)
     • "...the United States considers the Golan Heights to be occupied territory subject to negotiation and Israeli withdrawal..." ("CRS Issue Brief for Congress: Israeli-United States Relations" Archived 24 April 2003 at the Wayback Machine, Congressional Research Service, 5 April 2002. pg. 5. Retrieved 1 August 2010.)
     • "Occupied Golan Heights" (Travel advice: Israel and the Occupied Palestinian Territories Archived 20 July 2009 at the Wayback Machine, UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office. Retrieved 1 August 2010.)
     • "In the ICRC's view, the Golan is an occupied territory." (ICRC activities in the occupied Golan during 2007 Archived 15 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine, International Committee of the Red Cross, 24 April 2008.)
249. "About Us – Al-Marsad – المرصد". 12 October 2020. Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 19 January 2023.
250. "Resolving the Future of the Occupied Syrian Golan" (PDF). Old Dominion University Model United Nations. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 August 2022. Retrieved 9 May 2022.
251. "'The jungle is back.' With his Golan Heights tweet, Trump emboldens the annexation agendas of the world's strongmen". The Globe and Mail. 22 March 2019. Archived from the original on 28 November 2020. Retrieved 25 March 2019.
252. "Political foe of Syrians wounded on Beirut street". Tampa Bay Times (previously named the St. Petersburg Times through 2011). St. Petersburg Times. 12 November 1976. Archived from the original on 3 October 2018. Retrieved 17 March 2020.
253. "Syria's role in Lebanon". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 16 November 2011. Retrieved 11 August 2020.
254. "Syrian troops leave Lebanese soil". BBC News. BBC. 26 April 2005. Archived from the original on 16 September 2012. Retrieved 11 August 2020.
255. "Israeli views on Shebaa Farms harden". BBC News. 25 August 2006. Archived from the original on 29 August 2006. Retrieved 30 December 2017.
256. Berman, Yaniv; Line, Media (8 October 2006). "Shebaa Farms – nub of conflict". Ynetnews. Archived from the original on 19 January 2023. Retrieved 30 December 2017.
257. "Har Dov withdrawal not on the table". The Jerusalem Post. 26 July 2006. Archived from the original on 25 March 2014. Retrieved 30 December 2017.
258. "Syria reduces compulsory military service by three months". China Daily. 20 March 2011. Archived from the original on 3 May 2011. Retrieved 23 April 2011.
259. "Syria's embrace of WMD"^{[dead link]} by Eyal Zisser, The Globe and Mail, 28 September 2004 (link leads only to abstract; purchase necessary for full article). EYAL ZISSER (28 September 2004). "Syria's embrace of WMD". The Globe and Mail. p. A21. Archived from the original on 16 January 2009.
260. "Syria among worst for rights abuses: HRW report". Reuters. 24 January 2011. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 5 July 2021.
261. Guy Dinmore (31 March 2006). "Bush enters debate on freedom in Iran". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 11 March 2018. Retrieved 6 April 2006.(subscription required)
262. "Freedom in the World Report: Syria". January 2011. Archived from the original on 23 December 2011. Retrieved 22 August 2011.
263. "Syria: Events of 2018". World Report 2019: Rights Trends in Syria. Human Rights Watch. 17 December 2018. Archived from the original on 31 October 2019. Retrieved 18 October 2019.
264. "OHCHR | IICISyria Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic". www.ohchr.org. Archived from the original on 22 February 2013. Retrieved 19 October 2020.
265. "Syria: Families of 'Disappeared' Deserve Answers". Human Rights Watch. 30 November 2022. Archived from the original on 1 February 2023.
266. "A/76/890: Missing people in the Syrian Arab Republic — Report of the Secretary-General". United Nations-OHCHR. 2 August 2022. Archived from the original on 5 January 2023.
267. "Syria: Chemical weapons pose unacceptable threat, and are a 'danger to us all'". UN News. 5 January 2023. Archived from the original on 18 February 2023.
268. "Syria's Chemical Weapons Declaration Remains Incomplete, Disarmament Chief Tells Security Council". 8 May 2023. Archived from the original on 11 May 2023.
269. Syria: Events of 2008. Human Rights Watch. 13 January 2009. Archived from the original on 4 August 2020. Retrieved 4 December 2016.
270. Joe Lauria (29 November 2011). "More than 250 children among dead, U.N. says". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 10 July 2017. Retrieved 29 November 2011.
271. "UN report: Syrian forces commit 'gross violations' of human rights". CNN. 29 November 2011. Archived from the original on 29 November 2011. Retrieved 29 November 2011.
272. "200 massacred in Hama, claim Syrian activists". The Hindu. 13 July 2012. Archived from the original on 18 January 2016. Retrieved 13 July 2012.
273. Lewis, Paul; Chulov, Martin; Borger, Julian; Watt, Nicholas (27 August 2013). "Iran warns west against military intervention in Syria". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 26 August 2013. Retrieved 28 August 2013.
274. Güsten, Susanne (13 February 2013). "Christians Squeezed Out by Violent Struggle in North Syria". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 3 January 2019. Retrieved 18 February 2017.
275. Behari, Elad (23 December 2011). "Syria: Sunnis Threatening to Massacre Minority Alawites". Arutz Sheva. Archived from the original on 16 November 2018. Retrieved 19 October 2014.
276. "Syria: Chemical weapons pose unacceptable threat, and are a 'danger to us all'". UN News. 5 January 2023. Archived from the original on 18 February 2023.
277. Griffin, Jennifer (6 April 2017). "US launches missiles into Syria in response to chemical weapons attack". Fox News. Archived from the original on 7 April 2017. Retrieved 7 April 2017.
278. Loveluck, Louisa (6 April 2017). "Deadly nerve agent sarin used in Syria attack, Turkish Health Ministry says". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 5 April 2019. Retrieved 7 April 2017.
279. "US claims 2019 Syria airstrike investigated by NY Times 'legitimate'". France 24. 15 November 2021. Archived from the original on 15 November 2021. Retrieved 9 May 2022.
280. "Syria regime revenues shrink as losses mount". The Daily Star. Agence France-Presse. 30 May 2015. Retrieved 31 May 2015.
281. "Iran spends billions to prop up Assad". TDA. Bloomberg. 11 June 2015. Archived from the original on 17 May 2019. Retrieved 11 June 2015.
282. "Syria's economy cut in half by conflict". BBC News. 23 June 2015. Retrieved 24 June 2015.
283. "Country and Lending Groups". World Bank. Archived from the original on 18 March 2011. Retrieved 26 July 2012.
284. "Syria Country Brief, September 2010" (PDF). World Bank.
285. Transactions of the American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers. The Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers. 1921.
286. "Syria Weighs Its Tactics as Pillars of Its Economy Continue to Crumble". The New York Times. 13 July 2013. Retrieved 13 July 2013.
287. "Economic Challenges and Reform Options for Syria: A Growth Diagnostics Report" (PDF). World Bank. 21 February 2011. p. 10.
288. "Syria". Index of Economic Freedom.
289. "Syria reverts to socialist economic policies to ease tension". Reuters. 4 July 2012. Retrieved 27 October 2012.
290. "Syria's battling economy may hold on with help from friends". Agence France-Presse. Archived from the original on 23 August 2012. Retrieved 28 August 2012.
291. "Syria's ailing economy hits citizens and regime". Financial Times. 6 February 2012. Retrieved 24 August 2012.
292. "Syrian Economy To Shrink By 20 Percent in 2012 As Country Struggles With War". HuffPost. 12 October 2012.
293. "Syrians struggle with shortages as economy buckles". Associated Press. 22 January 2013. Archived from the original on 13 May 2013.
294. "The Syrian Economy: Hanging by a Thread". Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. 20 June 2012.
295. Sherlock, Ruth (27 May 2015). "Isil seizes Syrian regime's lucrative phosphate mines". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022. Retrieved 11 June 2015.
296. "IS blows up Syria gas pipeline serving capital: monitor". Yahoo News. Agence France-Presse. 10 June 2015. Retrieved 11 June 2015.
297. Shaheen, Kareem (11 June 2015). "String of losses in Syria leaves Assad regime increasingly precarious". The Guardian. Retrieved 11 June 2015.
298. Heydemann, Steven. Authoritarianism in Syria. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1999. Print. Pg.110
299. Heydemann, Steven. Authoritarianism in Syria. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1999. Print.
300. Heydemann, Steven. Authoritarianism in Syria. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1999. Print. Pg 111.
301. Hubbard, Ben; Saad, Hwaida (5 December 2021). "On Syria's Ruins, a Drug Empire Flourishes". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 28 December 2021. Retrieved 6 December 2021.
302. Rose, Söderholm, Caroline, Alexander (April 2022). "The Captagon Threat: A Profile of Illicit Trade, Consumption, and Regional Realities" (PDF). New Lines Institute: 2–39. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 April 2022. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
303. "Is the Syrian Regime the World's Biggest Drug Dealer?". Vice World News. 14 December 2022. Archived from the original on 15 December 2022.
304. "Syria has become a narco-state". The Economist. 19 July 2021. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 27 December 2023.
305. Al-Khalidi, Suleiman (27 January 2015). "Syria raises fuel prices to snuff out black market, soothe unrest". Reuters. Retrieved 28 January 2015.
306. "Syria's oil production on Index Mundi". Retrieved 15 October 2016.
307. Syria. Matthew Bennett, Turismo y Comunicaciones Spain. Ministerio de Transportes. Madrid: EBizguides. 2007. p. 210. ISBN 978-84-935202-0-5. OCLC 144596963.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
308. "How to travel by train from London to Syria | Train travel in Syria". Seat61.com. Retrieved 25 October 2008.
309. "وزارة الاتصالات والتقانة". Moct.gov.sy. Archived from the original on 20 August 2013. Retrieved 28 August 2013.
310. "AT&T – 4G LTE, Cell Phones, U-verse, TV, Internet & Phone Service". Ste.gov.sy. Archived from the original on 23 July 2013. Retrieved 28 August 2013.
311. Katerji, Oz (4 April 2013). "The Syrian Electronic Army Are at Cyber War with Anonymous". Vice (magazine). Retrieved 28 August 2013.
312. Eissa, T; Cho, Gi-Hwan (2013). "Internet Anonymity in Syria, Challenges and Solution". IT Convergence and Security 2012. Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering. Vol. 215. pp. 177–186. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-5860-5_21. ISBN 978-94-007-5859-9.
313. Salman, M.; Mualla, W. (1 March 2004), "The utilization of water resources for agriculture in syria: analysis of the current situation and future challenges", International Seminar on Nuclear War and Planetary Emergencies ? 30th Session, The Science and Culture Series ? Nuclear Strategy and Peace Technology, WORLD SCIENTIFIC, pp. 263–274, doi:10.1142/9789812702753_0031, ISBN 978-981-238-820-9, retrieved 19 January 2023
314. "Growth after War in Syria" (PDF).
315. World Bank (2001). Syrian Arab Republic Irrigation Sector Report. Rural Development, Water and Environment Group, Middle East and North Africa Region, Report No. 22602-SYR
316. "World Population Prospects – Population Division". United Nations.
317. "Population Existed in Syria According To Censuses (1960, 1970, 1981, 1994, 2004) And Estimates of Their Number in Mid Years 2005–2011(000)". Central Bureau of Statistics. Archived from the original on 23 October 2015. Retrieved 18 October 2015.
318. "INTRODUCTION_-SYRIA_CONTEXT" (PDF). Pead Tracey.
319. "World Refugee Survey 2008". U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants. 19 June 2008. Archived from the original on 28 December 2012.
320. Politi, Daniel (30 August 2014). "U.N.: Syria Crisis Is 'Biggest Humanitarian Emergency of Our Era'". Slate. Retrieved 1 September 2014.
321. Nebehay, Stephanie (29 August 2014). "Syrian refugees top 3 million, half of all Syrians displaced – U.N." Reuters. Archived from the original on 18 January 2016. Retrieved 29 August 2014.
322. "Demographic Data of Registered Population". United Nations High Commission for Refugees. Archived from the original on 19 February 2018. Retrieved 29 August 2014.
323. "11 March 2020 – The Refugee Brief". The Refugee Brief. 11 March 2020. Retrieved 20 May 2021.
324. Richards, M; Rengo, C; Cruciani, F; Gratrix, F; Wilson, JF; Scozzari, R; MacAulay, V; Torroni, A (2003). "Extensive Female-Mediated Gene Flow from Sub-Saharan Africa into Near Eastern Arab Populations". American Journal of Human Genetics. 72 (4): 1058–1064. doi:10.1086/374384. PMC 1180338. PMID 12629598.
325. "In the Wake of the Phoenicians: DNA study reveals a Phoenician-Maltese link". National Geographic Magazine. October 2004. Archived from the original on 29 August 2008. Retrieved 30 January 2013.
326. "Syria's Assyrians threatened by extremists – Al-Monitor: the Pulse of the Middle East". Al-Monitor. Retrieved 24 July 2014.
327. "Turkey-Syria deal allows Syriacs to cross border for religious holidays". Today's Zaman. 26 April 2008. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 23 April 2011.
328. "Syria – Kurds". Library of Congress Country Studies.
329. Khalifa, Mustafa (2013), "The impossible partition of Syria", Arab Reform Initiative: 3–5, Arabs constitute the major ethnic group in Syria, making up between 80 and 85% of the population.
     Kurds are the second largest ethnic group in Syria, making up around 10% of the Syrian population and distributed among four regions...with a Yazidi minority that numbers around 40,000...
     Turkmen are the third-largest ethnic group in Syria, making up around 4–5% of the population. Some estimations indicate that they are the second biggest group, outnumbering Kurds, drawing on the fact that Turkmen are divided into two groups: the rural Turkmen who make up 30% of the Turkmen in Syria and have kept their mother tongue, and the urban Turkmen who have become Arabised and no longer speak their mother language...
     Assyrians are the fourth-largest ethnic group in Syria. They represent the original and oldest inhabitants of Syria, today making up around 3–4% of the Syrian population...
     Circassians are the fifth-largest ethnic group in Syria, making up around 1.5% of the population...
     Armenians are sixth-largest ethnic group in Syria, making up around 1% of the population...
     There are also a small number of other ethnic groups in Syria, including Greeks, Persians, Albanians, Bosnian, Pashtuns, Russians and Georgians...
330. "Who are the Turkmen in Syria?". BBC News. BBC. 2015. There are no reliable population figures, but they are estimated to number between about half a million and 3.5 million.
331. "Who Are the Turkmens of Syria?". The New York Times. 2015. Q. How many are there? A. No reliable figures are available, and estimates on the number of Turkmens in Syria and nearby countries vary widely, from the hundreds of thousands up to 3 million or more.
332. Peyrouse, Sebastien (2015), Turkmenistan: Strategies of Power, Dilemmas of Development, Routledge, p. 62, ISBN 978-0-230-11552-1, There are nearly one million [Turkmen] in Syria...
333. "The Arabs of Brazil". Saudi Aramco World. September–October 2005. Archived from the original on 26 November 2005. Retrieved 30 January 2013.
334. United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. "UN refugee agency welcomes Brazil announcement of humanitarian visas for Syrians". United Nations High Commission for Refugees. Retrieved 24 July 2014.
335. "Inmigracion sirio-libanesa en Argentina" (in Spanish). Confederación de Entidades Argentino Árabes. Archived from the original on 20 June 2010. Retrieved 30 January 2013.
336. Behnstedt, Peter (2008), "Syria", Encyclopedia of Arabic language and linguistics, vol. 4, Brill Publishers, p. 402, ISBN 978-90-04-14476-7
337. "What Languages Are Spoken in Syria?". WorldAtlas. 1 August 2017. Retrieved 9 May 2022.
338. Drysdale, Alasdair; Hinnebusch, Raymond A. (1991), Syria and the Middle East Peace Process, Council on Foreign Relations, p. 222, ISBN 978-0-87609-105-0
339. Danna, Nissim (December 2003). The Druze in the Middle East: Their Faith, Leadership, Identity and Status. Brighton: Sussex Academic Press. p. 227. ISBN 978-1-903900-36-9.
340. Pipes, Daniel (1 January 1989). "The Alawi Capture of Power in Syria". Middle Eastern Studies. 25 (4): 429–450. doi:10.1080/00263208908700793. JSTOR 4283331. S2CID 143250254.
341. "More than 570 thousand people were killed on the Syrian territory within 8 years of revolution demanding freedom, democracy, justice, and equality". The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights. 15 March 2019.
342. "Death toll in Syria likely as high as 120,000: group". Reuters. 14 May 2013.
343. Tomader Fateh (25 October 2008). "Patriarch of Antioch: I will be judged if I do not carry the Church and each one of you in my heart". Forward Magazine. Archived from the original on 2 March 2010. Retrieved 30 January 2013.
344. "Syria's president wants non-Muslim religions to help end his pariah status". The Economist. 13 July 2023. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 27 December 2023.
345. "Jews of Syria". www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org.
346. "U.S. Relations With Syria". State.gov. 24 October 2012. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
347. "Syria's Education System – Report – June 2001" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 23 April 2011.
348. "Syria – Education". Countrystudies.us. Retrieved 25 October 2008.
349. Ministry of Higher Education (23 November 2011). "Public universities". Ministry of Higher Education. Archived from the original on 13 November 2012. Retrieved 22 January 2013.
350. "Private universities". Ministry of Higher Education. 23 November 2011. Archived from the original on 13 November 2012. Retrieved 22 January 2013.
351. "Forward Magazine, Interview with President of Damascus University". February 2008. Archived from the original on 18 June 2008.
352. Forward Magazine, Interview with President of Aleppo University, May 2008. Archived 6 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine
353. "Getting education right". March 2008. Archived from the original on 3 October 2010.
354. "Syrian Arab Republic". Ranking Web of Universities. Retrieved 26 February 2013.
355. "Health". SESRIC. Archived from the original on 13 May 2013. Retrieved 5 March 2013.
356. "Demography". SESRIC. Retrieved 5 March 2013.
357. Hopwood, Derek (1988). Syria 1945–1986: Politics and Society. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-04-445039-9.
358. Salamandra, Christa (2004). A New Old Damascus: Authenticity and Distinction in Urban Syria. Indiana University Press. p. 103. ISBN 978-0-253-21722-6.
359. "Syria: Events of 2018". World Report 2019: Rights Trends in Syria. Human Rights Watch. 17 December 2018.
360. "OHCHR | IICISyria Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic". www.ohchr.org. Retrieved 19 October 2020.
361. Salti, Rasha (2006). Insights into Syrian Cinema: Essays and Conversations with Contemporary Filmmakers. ArteEast. ISBN 978-1-892494-70-2.
362. "Freedom House report on Syria (2010)" (PDF). Freedom House. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 December 2010.
363. Wright, Robin (2008). Dreams and shadows, the Future of the Middle East. Penguin Press. p. 214. ISBN 9781594201110. more than one dozen intelligence agencies
364. Wright, Robin (2008). Dreams and shadows, the Future of the Middle East. Penguin Press. p. 230. ISBN 9781594201110. hundreds of thousands of mukhabarat according to dissident Riad Seif
365. "Akram Raslan: How Caricatures Shake Tyranny". Syria Untold. 13 April 2015. Retrieved 23 September 2015.
366. "Damascus". Raidió Teilifís Éireann. 15 October 2009. Archived from the original on 4 December 2009. Retrieved 26 November 2009.

General references

• Boczek, Boleslaw Adam (2006). International Law: A Dictionary. Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0-8108-5078-8
• Finkelstein, Norman (2003). Image and reality of the Israel-Palestine conflict. Verso. ISBN 978-1-85984-442-7.
• Glass, Charles (1990), Tribes with Flags: A Dangerous Passage Through the Chaos of the Middle East, Atlantic Monthly Press (New York) and Picador (London), ISBN 978-0-436-18130-6.
• Karoubi, Mohammad Taghi (2004). Just or Unjust War? Ashgate Publishing ISBN 0-7546-2375-0
• Forward Magazine (Syria's English monthly since 2007).
• Orsam Suriye Türkleri Raporu-Orsam Syria Turks
• Wright, Robin. 2008. Dreams and Shadows : the Future of the Middle East. Penguin.

Further reading

• van Dam, Nikolaos (2011), The Struggle for Power in Syria: Politics and Society under Asad and the Ba'ath Party, I. B. Tauris.
• Dawisha, A. I. (1980). Syria and the Lebanese Crisis. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-78203-0.
• Lawson, Fred H (2010), Demystifying Syria, Saqi.
• Maoz, M. (1986). Yaniv, A (ed.). Syria Under Assad. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-78206-1.
• Paton, L. B. (1981). The Early History of Syria and Palestine. ISBN 978-1-113-53822-2.
• Sahner, Christian C. (2014). Among the Ruins: Syria Past and Present. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-939670-2.
• Schlicht, Alfred (1980), "The role of foreign powers in the history of Lebanon and Syria from 1799 to 1861", Journal of Asian History, 14.
• Seale, Patrick (1987). The Struggle for Syria. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-03944-3.

External links

• Key Development Forecasts for Syria from International Futures

Government

• Electronic Government Portal – gateway to government sites
• Prime Minister – official website of the prime minister of Syria
• Statistics – Official website of Central Bureau of Statistics

History

• "History" – Syrian history at Embassy of the Syrian Arab Republic in Romania

Tourism

• Tourism – official website of the minister of tourism

Maps

• Wikimedia Atlas of Syria
• Geographic data related to Syria at OpenStreetMap

35°N 38°E