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Mass media in Ba'athist Syria

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The mass media in Ba'athist Syria consisted primarily of television, radio, Internet, film and print. The national language of Ba'athist Syria was Arabic but some publications and broadcasts were also disseminated in English and French.[1] While television was the most popular medium in Ba'athist Syria, the Internet became a widely utilized vehicle to disseminate content by 2013. In addition to its control of domestic media, the Ba'athist state also sought to control what Syrians saw by restricting coverage from outside sources.[2] Publications and broadcasts were monitored by members of the government.[1] All mass media outlets were under the supervision of the Ministry of Information. Third article of the 2013 Information Ministry guidelines stipulated that the purpose of all media outlets was "to enlighten public opinion" in line with the ideological doctrines "of the Arab Socialist Ba’ath Party and the policy of the state".[3]

Following Ba'ath party's capture of power in 1963, the state immediately banned all news outlets except which advanced party propaganda. Syrians have had no exposure to free media or independent press since then, with there being no space for independent journalism, newspapers, publications, journalists or websites un-affiliated with party organizations. The situation worsened further after 1970, with the Ba'athist dictatorship imposing additional censorship policies that furthered its totalitarian control of the society.[4] State propaganda machine was primarily used to monopolise information access and indoctrinate the Syrian population in Ba'athist ideology.[5]

Ba'athist Syria was one of the most dangerous places in the world for journalists and was ranked 2nd worst in the World Press Freedom Index in 2024.[6][7] There were 28 journalists killed in combat in 2012.[8] Between 2011 and 2020, more than 700 civilian journalists have been killed in Syria and an estimated 78% of these killings were perpetarted by Ba'athist forces. More than 400 journalists were arrested or kidnapped in the course of the Syrian civil war. More than a third of independent journalists reporting on the war were forced to flee after Assad regime's capture of territories in Southern and Eastern Syria during 2016-2018.[9][10] During the early years of the Syrian revolution, there was a mass flight of local journalists due to persecution, threats, harassment, torture, executions and kidnappings from Ba'athist and pro-Assad militias. Ba'athist Syria had numerous laws such as "1965 law of protection against the revolution", "2011 media law", "2012 terrorism law", "2021 cybercrime law" which enabled the state to formally indict journalists and give a legal cover to media censorship.[11]

Media

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Public media journalists in Ba'athist Syria practiced self-censorship.[8] Public media consisted of television, print, film, radio and internet and social media.

Print

According to Human Rights Watch, The Syrian Arab Establishment for Distribution of Printed Products, which was affiliated with the Ministry of Information, vetted all newspapers prior to distribution. The only two private daily newspapers covering political topics that have succeeded in staying open are owned by businessmen closely tied to the Ba'athist regime: Baladna and Al-Watan.[12] Al-Watan, a private daily formerly published by businessman Rami Makhlouf, Bashar al-Assad's cousin, was launched in 2006. United Group, a major advertising group owned by Majd Suleiman, son of a former senior intelligence officer (Bahjat Suleiman), owns and operated the private daily Baladna.[13]

Other Ba'athist and semi-official pro-Assadist private prints were permitted to be published in Ba'athist Syria such as dailies: Al-Thawra, Tishreen, Al-Ba'ath and Al-Iqtissadiya.[14]

Television

Main article: Television in Syria

There is one main broadcaster for both television and radio called the General Organization of Radio and Television of Syria (ORTAS). It was founded in 1960 and is based in Damascus. The channel has programs in Arabic, English and French.[1] TV is the most popular media in Syria.[8]

Satellite channels

Terrestrial channels

  • Channel 1 (Terrestrial, with Arabic focus), shut down in 2012.
  • Channel 2 (Terrestrial, with sport, family and health focus including regional variants), shut down in 2012.

Newspapers

Main article: List of newspapers in Syria

Film

Main article: Cinema of Syria

The Syrian film industry is state-run by the Ministry of Culture, which controls production through the National Organization for Cinema. The industry is largely propaganda based, focusing on Syria's successes in agriculture, health, transportation and infrastructure.[15]

Radio

See also: List of radio stations in Syria

First radio service began in 1941 in Syria.[16] There are over 4 million radios in Syria. They tend to broadcast music, ads and stories relating to culture.[1]

  • Syrian Arab Republic Radio
  • Alaan FM : Al Aan FM Launched in Syria in October 2012 broadcasting live from the UAE. Al Aan FM is available in the following cities and frequencies:
  • FARAH FM 97.3
  • Al-Bukamal 96.6 MHz
  • Aleppo 96.6 MHz
  • Al Qunaitra 98.2 MHz
  • Atimah Camps 99.7 MHz
  • Azaz & Afrin 96.6 MHz
  • Al Bab & Manbij 104.4 MHz
  • Damascus 96.9 MHz
  • Daraa 96.9 and 99.4 MHz
  • Hama, Homs 97.6 MHz
  • Idlib 96.6 MHz
  • Kobani 96.7 MHz
  • Latakia 96.6 MHz
  • Qamishli & Amuda 97.6 MHz
  • Suwayda 96.9 and 99.4 MHz
  • Shaddadi (Ash Shaddadi) 97.6 MHz
  • FARAH FM: www.farah.fm
  • FARAH FM 97.3 Radio FARAH FM Syria
  • Al-Madina FM: Syria's first private radio station

Online

See also: Telecommunications in Syria

Providing hosting services is a violation of United States sanctions.[17] Ba'athist Syrian government websites, news agencies and online news services based in or targeted at Syria, several of which launched during the Syrian civil war, include:[17]

  • Syrian Arab News Agency (SANA)
  • Al-Masdar News, a pro-Assadist newsoutlet. Shut down in 2021.[18][19]
  • Al-Watan, an online edition of Damascus-based Al-Watan newspaper, the 33rd most visited website for 2010 in the MENA region.[20]
  • SUNA news agency, an online news platform focused on Syria.[21]
  • Click News Syria, an online news service and a special media blog focused on Syria.[22]
  • Snack Syrian, an online news service focused on Syria.[23]
  • Q Street Journal, an online news service, online radio and a special media blog focused on Syria. Broadcasting from Dubai, UAE.[24]
  • ARA News, an online news service focussed on the consequences of war in Syria and Iraq, ceased operation in 2017.[25]
  • Syria-News, an Arabic language online press agency intended to report news about Syria.
  • Syria NewsDesk, a Beirut-based Arabic news agency, focussed on the ordeal of the Syrian population, supported by the Dutch foundation "Free Press Unlimited".[26][27]

Pro-opposition media

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The public does have access to Western radio stations and satellite TV, and Qatar-based Al Jazeera has become very popular in Syria.[28]

In August 2012, a media centre utilized by foreign reporters in Azaz was targeted by the Syrian Air Force in an airstrike on a civilian area during Ramadan.[29]

Television

Main article: Television in Syria

There are also satellite stations which broadcast outside Syria. Two of the primary satellite networks, Eutelsat and Nilesat, have recently expressed frustrations over the Syrian government preventing satellite TV transmissions broadcast from international outlets.[8]

Satellite channels

Press

  • Enab Baladi, based in Istanbul, Turkey. Announced closure on 23 November 2023.[30]
  • Al-Ahd (The Vow): published by the Syrian Muslim Brotherhood
  • Qasioun News Agency: news agency licensed in Turkey, based in Gaziantep.
  • Shaam News Network, which is an activist news organization. It is privately financed. Each 16-page edition includes coverage of culture, translation from foreign news sources and cartoons.[34]

Radio

Main article: List of radio stations in Syria
Pro-Turkish
  • Watan FM (from Istanbul, Turkey)

Internet and social media

Main article: Internet in Syria

With the breakdown of many traditional media outlets during the civil war, much of the current events are reported by individuals on Facebook and Twitter. However, the reliability of such reports can in many cases not be independently verified by credible news agencies. While many websites have appeared and publish a pro-opposition alternative to pro-government media, the lack of robust journalistic standards has often benefited the government since correctly denying news reports gives them more credibility.[35]

Prohibitive measures against media

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State of Emergency law

The constitution of the Syrian Arab Republic guaranteed the right to a free press and freedom of expression, but Syria was under a highly restrictive state of emergency law since the Ba'ath Party came to power in 1964 until 2011. Anyone wishing to establish an independent paper or periodical must apply for a license from the Ministry of Information.[28] In 2011 the state of emergency was lifted.[41] This seems to have had no effect what-so-ever on the way the government conducted itself regarding the media, with Syria's ranking actually worsening the following year with journalistic organizations such as the Committee to Protect Journalists,[42] and Reporters Without Borders[43] both ranking Syria as one of the top four most repressive countries in the world.

In April 2009, Syrian Kurdish journalist Faruq Haji Mustafa was arrested by the Ba'athist secret police and has never been heard from again.[44]

Internet censorship

Main article: Internet censorship in Syria

In 2012, there were over 5 million Internet users in Syria. Reporters Without Borders listed Ba'athist Syria as an “internet enemy” due to high levels of censorship. The Internet was controlled by the Syrian Computer Society (SCS) and the Syrian Telecommunications Establishment (STE).[45] The Assad regime monitored activity through the hacking of emails and social networking accounts and phishing. Simultaneously, the government released pro-Assad propaganda and engaged in disinformation campaigns to support its cause.[46] Ba'athist Syria's penal law required Internet cafes to record all comments in the online chatrooms.[47] There was a two-day Internet blackout in 2012, which was orchestrated by the Assad regime.[8] Ba'athist authorities constantly blocked journalists and bloggers from attending and reporting on events by arresting and torturing them. This was not limited to Syrian journalists as several foreign journalists, such as the members of the Associated Press and Reuters, were also arrested and expelled from the country over their reporting.[46]

Press freedom

Reporters Without Borders ranked Ba'athist Syria 179th out of 180 countries in the world on its 2024 Press Freedom Index.[6] On the Press Freedom Barometer for 2022, the organization reports that 1 journalist has been killed, while 27 journalists and 2 media workers have been imprisoned.[48]

See also

References

Further reading

External links

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