現代希伯來語

現代希伯來語（希伯來語：עִבְרִית חֲדָשָׁה‎，羅馬化：ʿĪvrīt ḥadašá，發音：[ivˈʁit χadaˈʃa]），又稱以色列希伯來語，是現今使用的希伯來語的標準形式。它由19世紀末及20世紀初希伯來語復興運動發展起來，現為以色列國的法定語文，是世界上唯一仍在使用的迦南語言。^[8]

現代希伯來語
希伯來語 以色列希伯來語
עברית חדשה‬‎
現代希伯來語中的「shalom」一詞，標注有元音符號
區域	南黎凡特（英語：Southern Levant）
族群	以色列猶太人、阿拉伯裔以色列人、全球猶太人
母語使用人數	9百萬 （2014年）[1][2][3] 母語：5百萬 第二語言：4百萬
語系	亞非語系 閃米特語族 中閃米特語支 西北閃米特語支（英語：Northwest Semitic languages） 迦南諸語（英語：Canaanite languages） 希伯來語 現代希伯來語
早期形式	聖經希伯來語 米書拿希伯來語（英語：Mishnaic Hebrew） 中世紀希伯來語（英語：Medieval Hebrew） 現代希伯來語
文字	希伯來字母 希伯來盲文（英語：Hebrew Braille）
手語形式	以色列手語（英語：Israeli Sign Language）[4]
官方地位
作為官方語言	以色列
管理機構	希伯來語言學院
語言代碼
ISO 639-1	he
ISO 639-2	heb
ISO 639-3	heb
Glottolog	hebr1245[5]
希伯來語世界：[6][7]   50%以上的人口說希伯來語   25%至50%的人口說希伯來語   不到25%的人口說希伯來語

希伯來語是亞非語系中西北閃族語言的一種，自古以來一直是猶太人的語言。公元前3世紀猶太人日常語言被西亞蘭語（亞蘭語的一種方言）所取代。然而，希伯來語仍用於猶太教禮拜儀式及猶太文學的某些流派。到了19世紀末，俄羅斯猶太語言學家艾利澤·本-耶胡達發起了一場民眾運動，旨在將希伯來語復興為活語言，在錫安主義的背景下保育希伯來文學及猶太民族的獨特性。^[9][10][11]

如今，大約有900至1000萬人使用希伯來語，其中包括母語人士、流利使用者及非流利使用者。^[12][13]這個數字的一半是以希伯來語為母語的以色列人，而另一半則是其他人士：150萬是往以色列的移民；150萬是阿拉伯裔以色列人，他們的第一語言通常是黎凡特阿拉伯語；五十萬是移居海外的以色列人或散居海外的猶太人。

根據以色列法律，正式指導現代希伯來語發展的組織是希伯來語言學院，其總部位於耶路撒冷希伯來大學。

名稱

該語言學術上稱為「現代希伯來語」（עברית חדשה‎），通稱「以色列希伯來語」（עברית ישראלית‎），簡稱「希伯來語」（עברית‎）。^[14]

亦有人認為「現代希伯來語」這個稱法不妥^[15]，因為它暗示了聖經希伯來語的明確分期。^[16]海姆·B·羅森（法語：Haiim B. Rosén）支持改用已廣泛使用的「以色列希伯來語」^[17]，因為它「代表了希伯來語的非時間順序性質」。^[18][19]1999年，以色列語言學家諸葛漫提出了「以色列語」一詞以代表該語言的多重起源。^[20]:325[21]

背景

古希伯來語作為一種口頭語言在公元132至136年巴柯巴起義之後衰落，對這場起義的鎮壓摧毀了猶太地區的人口，使得希伯來語在公元200至400年間消亡。猶太人流亡後，希伯來語僅限於禮拜儀式使用。^[22]

字母

名稱	Alef	Bet	Gimel	Dalet	He	Vav	Zayin	Chet	Tet	Yod	Kaf	Lamed	Mem	Nun	Samech	Ayin	Pe	Tzadi	Kof	Resh	Shin	Tav
正楷	א	ב	ג	ד	ה	ו	ז	ח	ט	י	כ	ל	מ	נ	ס	ע	פ	צ	ק	ר	ש	ת
潦草
發音	[ʔ], ∅	[b], [v]	[g]	[d]	[h]	[v]	[z]	[x]~[χ]	[t]	[j]	[k], [x]~[χ]	[l]	[m]	[n]	[s]	[ʔ], ∅	[p], [f]	[t͡s]	[k]	[ɣ]~[ʁ]	[ʃ], [s]	[t]
轉寫	a,e,i,o,u,'	b, v	g	d	h	v	z	h, ch	t	y	k, kh	l	m	n	s	a,e,i,o,u,'	p, f	ts	k	r	sh, s	t

詞法

現代希伯來語的詞法與聖經希伯來語相差無幾。^[23]

參見

• 希伯來語
• 聖經希伯來語

參考

1. Hebrew. UCLA Language Materials Project. University of California. [1 May 2017]. （原始內容存檔於11 March 2011）.
2. Dekel 2014
3. Hebrew. Ethnologue. [12 July 2018]. （原始內容存檔於14 May 2020）.
4. Meir & Sandler, 2013, A Language in Space: The Story of x Sign Language
5. Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin; Bank, Sebastian (編). Modern Hebrew. Glottolog 2.7. Jena: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. 2016.
6. אוכלוסייה, לפי קבוצת אוכלוסייה, דת, גיל ומין, מחוז ונפה [Population, by Population Group, Religion, age and sex, district and sub-district] (PDF). Central Bureau of Statistics. 6 September 2017 [2018-05-24]. （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於2018-05-09） （希伯來語）.
7. The Arab Population in Israel (PDF). Central Bureau of Statistics. November 2002 [2018-05-24]. （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於2015-09-23）.
8. Huehnergard, John; Pat-El, Na'ama. The Semitic Languages. Routledge. 2019: 571 [2021-02-18]. ISBN 9780429655388. （原始內容存檔於2023-07-01）.
9. Mandel, George. Ben-Yehuda, Eliezer [Eliezer Yizhak Perelman] (1858–1922). Glenda Abramson [New ed.] London. 2005 [2023-05-10]. ISBN 0-415-29813-X. OCLC 57470923. （原始內容存檔於2023-07-01）. In 1879 he wrote an article for the Hebrew press advocating Jewish immigration to Palestine. Ben-Yehuda argued that only in a country with a Jewish majority could a living Hebrew literature and a distinct Jewish nationality survive; elsewhere, the pressure to assimilate to the language of the majority would cause Hebrew to die out. Shortly afterwards he reached the conclusion that the active use of Hebrew as a literary language could not be sustained, notwithstanding the hoped-for concentration of Jews in Palestine, unless Hebrew also became the everyday spoken language there.
10. Fellman, Jack. The Revival of Classical Tongue : Eliezer Ben Yehuda and the Modern Hebrew Language. Walter de Gruyter. 19 July 2011 [2023-05-10]. ISBN 978-3-11-087910-0. OCLC 1089437441. （原始內容存檔於2023-07-01）.
11. Kuzar, Ron, Hebrew and Zionism, Berlin, Boston: DE GRUYTER, 2001 [2023-05-10], doi:10.1515/9783110869491.vii, （原始內容存檔於2023-07-01）
12. Klein, Zeev. A million and a half Israelis struggle with Hebrew. Israel Hayom. March 18, 2013 [2 November 2013]. （原始內容存檔於4 November 2013）.
13. Nachman Gur; Behadrey Haredim. Kometz Aleph – Au• How many Hebrew speakers are there in the world?. [2 November 2013]. （原始內容存檔於4 November 2013）.
14. Dekel 2014; quote: "Most people refer to Israeli Hebrew simply as Hebrew. Hebrew is a broad term, which includes Hebrew as it was spoken and written in different periods of time and according to most of the researchers as it is spoken and written in Israel and elsewhere today. Several names have been proposed for the language spoken in Israel nowadays, Modern Hebrew is the most common one, addressing the latest spoken language variety in Israel (Berman 1978, Saenz-Badillos 1993:269, Coffin-Amir & Bolozky 2005, Schwarzwald 2009:61). The emergence of a new language in Palestine at the end of the nineteenth century was associated with debates regarding the characteristics of that language.... Not all scholars supported the term Modern Hebrew for the new language. Rosén (1977:17) rejected the term Modern Hebrew, since linguistically he claimed that 'modern' should represent a linguistic entity that should command autonomy towards everything that preceded it, while this was not the case in the new emerging language. He also rejected the term Neo-Hebrew, because the prefix 'neo' had been previously used for Mishnaic and Medieval Hebrew (Rosén 1977:15–16), additionally, he rejected the term Spoken Hebrew as one of the possible proposals (Rosén 1977:18). Rosén supported the term Israeli Hebrew as in his opinion it represented the non-chronological nature of Hebrew, as well as its territorial independence (Rosén 1977:18). Rosén then adopted the term Contemporary Hebrew from Téne (1968) for its neutrality, and suggested the broadening of this term to Contemporary Israeli Hebrew (Rosén 1977:19)"
15. Matras & Schiff 2005; quote: The language with which we are concerned in this contribution is also known by the names Contemporary Hebrew and Modern Hebrew, both somewhat problematic terms as they rely on the notion of an unambiguous periodization separating Classical or Biblical Hebrew from the present-day language. We follow instead the now widely-used label coined by Rosén (1955), Israeli Hebrew, to denote the link between the emergence of a Hebrew vernacular and the emergence of an Israeli national identity in Israel/Palestine in the early twentieth century."
16. Matras & Schiff 2005; quote: The language with which we are concerned in this contribution is also known by the names Contemporary Hebrew and Modern Hebrew, both somewhat problematic terms as they rely on the notion of an unambiguous periodization separating Classical or Biblical Hebrew from the present-day language. We follow instead the now widely-used label coined by Rosén (1955), Israeli Hebrew, to denote the link between the emergence of a Hebrew vernacular and the emergence of an Israeli national identity in Israel/Palestine in the early twentieth century."
17. Matras & Schiff 2005; quote: The language with which we are concerned in this contribution is also known by the names Contemporary Hebrew and Modern Hebrew, both somewhat problematic terms as they rely on the notion of an unambiguous periodization separating Classical or Biblical Hebrew from the present-day language. We follow instead the now widely-used label coined by Rosén (1955), Israeli Hebrew, to denote the link between the emergence of a Hebrew vernacular and the emergence of an Israeli national identity in Israel/Palestine in the early twentieth century."
18. Dekel 2014; quote: "Most people refer to Israeli Hebrew simply as Hebrew. Hebrew is a broad term, which includes Hebrew as it was spoken and written in different periods of time and according to most of the researchers as it is spoken and written in Israel and elsewhere today. Several names have been proposed for the language spoken in Israel nowadays, Modern Hebrew is the most common one, addressing the latest spoken language variety in Israel (Berman 1978, Saenz-Badillos 1993:269, Coffin-Amir & Bolozky 2005, Schwarzwald 2009:61). The emergence of a new language in Palestine at the end of the nineteenth century was associated with debates regarding the characteristics of that language.... Not all scholars supported the term Modern Hebrew for the new language. Rosén (1977:17) rejected the term Modern Hebrew, since linguistically he claimed that 'modern' should represent a linguistic entity that should command autonomy towards everything that preceded it, while this was not the case in the new emerging language. He also rejected the term Neo-Hebrew, because the prefix 'neo' had been previously used for Mishnaic and Medieval Hebrew (Rosén 1977:15–16), additionally, he rejected the term Spoken Hebrew as one of the possible proposals (Rosén 1977:18). Rosén supported the term Israeli Hebrew as in his opinion it represented the non-chronological nature of Hebrew, as well as its territorial independence (Rosén 1977:18). Rosén then adopted the term Contemporary Hebrew from Téne (1968) for its neutrality, and suggested the broadening of this term to Contemporary Israeli Hebrew (Rosén 1977:19)"
19. Haiim Rosén. Contemporary Hebrew. Walter de Gruyter. 1 January 1977: 15–18. ISBN 978-3-11-080483-6.
20. Zuckermann, G. (1999), "Review of the Oxford English-Hebrew Dictionary", International Journal of Lexicography, Vol. 12, No. 4, pp. 325-346
21. Dekel 2014; quote: "Most people refer to Israeli Hebrew simply as Hebrew. Hebrew is a broad term, which includes Hebrew as it was spoken and written in different periods of time and according to most of the researchers as it is spoken and written in Israel and elsewhere today. Several names have been proposed for the language spoken in Israel nowadays, Modern Hebrew is the most common one, addressing the latest spoken language variety in Israel (Berman 1978, Saenz-Badillos 1993:269, Coffin-Amir & Bolozky 2005, Schwarzwald 2009:61). The emergence of a new language in Palestine at the end of the nineteenth century was associated with debates regarding the characteristics of that language.... Not all scholars supported the term Modern Hebrew for the new language. Rosén (1977:17) rejected the term Modern Hebrew, since linguistically he claimed that 'modern' should represent a linguistic entity that should command autonomy towards everything that preceded it, while this was not the case in the new emerging language. He also rejected the term Neo-Hebrew, because the prefix 'neo' had been previously used for Mishnaic and Medieval Hebrew (Rosén 1977:15–16), additionally, he rejected the term Spoken Hebrew as one of the possible proposals (Rosén 1977:18). Rosén supported the term Israeli Hebrew as in his opinion it represented the non-chronological nature of Hebrew, as well as its territorial independence (Rosén 1977:18). Rosén then adopted the term Contemporary Hebrew from Téne (1968) for its neutrality, and suggested the broadening of this term to Contemporary Israeli Hebrew (Rosén 1977:19)"
22. Sáenz-Badillos, Ángel and John Elwolde: "There is general agreement that two main periods of RH (Rabbinical Hebrew) can be distinguished. The first, which lasted until the close of the Tannaitic era (around 200 CE), is characterized by RH as a spoken language gradually developing into a literary medium in which the Mishnah, Tosefta, baraitot and Tannaitic midrashim would be composed. The second stage begins with the Amoraim and sees RH being replaced by Aramaic as the spoken vernacular, surviving only as a literary language. Then it continued to be used in later rabbinic writings until the tenth century in, for example, the Hebrew portions of the two Talmuds and in midrashic and haggadic literature."
23. R. Malatesha Joshi; P. G. Aaron (編). Handbook of Orthography and Literacy. Routledge. 2013: 343 [2015-06-20]. ISBN 9781136781353. （原始內容存檔於2023-03-26）.

參考書目

• Choueka, Yaakov. Rav-Milim: A comprehensive dictionary of Modern Hebrew. Tel Aviv: CET. 1997. ISBN 978-965-448-323-0.
• Ben-Ḥayyim, Ze'ev. The Struggle for a Language. Jerusalem: The Academy of the Hebrew Language. 1992.
• Dekel, Nurit. Colloquial Israeli Hebrew: A Corpus-based Survey. De Gruyter. 2014. ISBN 978-3-11-037725-5.
• Gila Freedman Cohen; Carmia Shoval. Easing Into Modern Hebrew Grammar: A User-friendly Reference and Exercise Book. Magnes Press. 2011. ISBN 978-965-493-601-9.
• Shlomo Izreʾel; Shlomo Raz. Studies in Modern Semitic Languages. BRILL. 1996. ISBN 978-90-04-10646-8.
• Matras, Yaron; Schiff, Leora. Spoken Israeli Hebrew revisited: Structures and variation (PDF). Studia Semitica. 2005, 16: 145–193 [2023-11-17]. （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於2016-03-04）.
• Ornan, Uzzi. The Final Word: Mechanism for Hebrew Word Generation. Hebrew Studies (Haifa University). 2003, 45: 285–287. JSTOR 27913706.
• Bergsträsser, Gotthelf. Peter T. Daniels , 編. Introduction to the Semitic Languages: Text Specimens and Grammatical Sketches. Eisenbrauns. 1983. ISBN 978-0-931464-10-2.
• Haiim B. Rosén. A Textbook of Israeli Hebrew. University of Chicago Press. 1962. ISBN 978-0-226-72603-8.
• Stefan Weninger. The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook. Walter de Gruyter. 23 December 2011. ISBN 978-3-11-025158-6.
• Wexler, Paul. The Schizoid Nature of Modern Hebrew: A Slavic Language in Search of a Semitic Past. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. 1990. ISBN 978-3-447-03063-2.
• Zuckermann, Ghil'ad. Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew. UK: Palgrave Macmillan. 2003. ISBN 978-1403917232.

外部連結

• Modern Hebrew Swadesh list
• The Corpus of Spoken Israeli Hebrew - introduction （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館） by Tel Aviv University
• Hebrew Today – Should You Learn Modern Hebrew or Biblical Hebrew? （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館）
• History of the Ancient and Modern Hebrew Language （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館） by David Steinberg
• Short History of the Hebrew Language （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館） by Chaim Menachem Rabin
• Academy of the Hebrew Language: How a Word is Born