至1088年,歐洲第一所大學(博洛尼亞大學)已成立,起初主要是培養書記人員。對拉丁語翻譯的需求增多起來(例如這時出現了托萊多翻譯院);西歐人開始收集各種文獻,不但收集以拉丁文寫成的,還收集從希臘語、阿拉伯語、希伯來語翻譯成拉丁文的。海什木《光學之書(英語:Book of Optics)》的手抄副本至遲到1240年以前也已經傳遍歐洲[80]:Intro. p. xx,這從威特羅的《透視(英語:Perspectiva)》一書將其整合在內即可看出。阿維森納的《醫典(英語:The Canon of Medicine)》也被譯成拉丁語[81]。尤其重要的是,羅馬天主教學者開始覓求保存於智慧之家及拜占庭帝國的亞里士多德、托勒密[h]以及歐幾里得等人的著作[82]。古典文獻的傳入引起了12世紀的文藝復興,以及作為天主教與亞里士多德主義的一種綜合體的經院哲學在西歐的興盛,西歐自此成為科學的一個新的地理中心。在這一時期,實驗被理解為一個細緻的過程,其中包含觀察、描述和分類[83]。羅吉爾·培根是這個時代的著名科學家之一。經院哲學強烈專注於啟示和辯證推理,在接下來的幾百年中漸漸變得不受歡迎;而與此同時,鍊金術對於包含了直接觀察和一絲不苟的記錄的實驗之專注正慢慢變得越來越重要。
作為啟蒙時代的先導,艾薩克·牛頓和戈特弗里德·萊布尼茨成功建立了一種如今稱為經典力學的新型物理學,這門學問可以被實驗驗證,可以用數學解釋。萊布尼茨亦從亞里士多德物理學借用了一些術語,然而是在新的、非目的論的意義上使用,如「能量」和「勢能」(亞里士多德的實現(energeia)與潛能(potentia)(英語:actuality and potentiality)之近代版)。這體現出對客體的觀念之轉變:曾被亞里士多德指出具備特定的、可以實現的內稟目標的客體,如今被認為沒有什麼內稟目標。以弗朗西斯·培根的方式,萊布尼茨假定,所有不同類型的事物皆遵照相同的自然法則運行,而並不擁有個個不同的形式因或目的因[96]。也正是在這個時期,「科學」這個詞被越來越經常的用以指代對某種類型的知識的某種類型的探求,特別是對自然知識的探求,這就與古老的「自然哲學」這個詞的涵義逐漸趨近了。
在論述非原創觀點或引用他人成果時,需要註明資料來源,以方便考證與查閱。現代學術服務機構普遍使用計算機數據庫儲存與檢索文獻。1665年1月,世界上第一個人文類學術期刊《學者周刊》(Journal des Sçavans)創刊。同年3月,第一個理工類研究雜誌《自然科學會報》創刊。此後,學術類期刊數量逐步增多。1981年時,曾有人估計當時的全球的學術期刊總數已達11500份。[132]僅與生命科學有關的學術雜誌,在美國國家醫學圖書館中就已列舉出5千份。雖涵蓋39種語言,但其中九成是英文雜誌。[133]一般人文學科在需要引用文獻時,一般需多列幾項參考資料。對於理工學科而言,《華盛頓郵報》文章稱,「鑑於中國國內學術抄襲與造假的現象較多[134][135],在引用國內文獻時,一般也需多列幾項參考資料」。少數行業精英有時在發表刊物或專著時,因幾乎均為原創內容,即使不寫參考資料也能順利發表,例如費曼等。目前的學術期刊廣泛採用同行評審的方式來履行學術質量把關。但同行評審機制不能完全防止學術造假的發生。[136]在知名雜誌發表論文時,同行評審會更加嚴格。不過同行評審非常嚴格的《科學》和《自然》等雜誌也有可能出現論文造假事件,21世紀初比較知名的學術造假案例有韓國科學家黃禹錫造假事件與日本科學家小保方晴子造假事件。評價學術期刊影響力的常見參考標準之一是看其影響指數(IF)的大小。影響指數高的期刊會更引人關注。過於強調影響指數的作用則是一種迷信的行為。另外,影響指數評價的是期刊在一段時期內所有論文的平均影響力,而有些人誤把影響指數當作了判斷特定論文及其投稿人的水平標準。[137]在知名期刊發表論文的研究者更易獲得更多的科研經費。由於知名期刊的關注度更高,所以時間有限的人會優先閱覽知名期刊,長此以往,在知名期刊投稿的作者的被引用幾率會越來越大,而在不知名期刊投稿的作者的被引用幾率會越來越小,造成評價標準越來越不公平的惡性循環。[138]影響指數的提出者尤金·嘎菲德(英語:Eugene Garfield)也指出同一期刊中不同文章的水平是不一樣的,不能一概而論,更不該作為評價個人能力的標準。[139]一種變通的應對方法是在發表論文時先嘗試給比自己預期稍好一些的雜誌投稿。2005年,物理學家喬治·希爾施(英語:Jorge E. Hirsch)提出了用於評價物理學家個人研究能力的H指數。
「如果一個人以所有人都能明白的口氣談論問題,那不難得知這肯定是某種深奧的哲學(意即「反正不是科學」)。但是,我打算講得更明確一些,我想讓大家以一種更誠實而非模稜兩可的方式理解我的意思。」 ("A person talks in such generalities that everyone can understand him and it's considered to be some deep philosophy. However, I would like to be very rather more special and I would like to be understood in an honest way, rather than in a vague way.)
"The historian ... requires a very broad definition of "science" – one that ... will help us to understand the modern scientific enterprise. We need to be broad and inclusive, rather than narrow and exclusive ... and we should expect that the farther back we go [in time] the broader we will need to be." — (Lindberg 2007,第3頁) harv error: multiple targets (7×): CITEREFLindberg2007 (help), which further cites Pingree, David. Hellenophilia versus the History of Science. Isis. December 1992, 4 (4): 554–63. Bibcode:1992Isis...83..554P. JSTOR 234257. doi:10.1086/356288.
海什木能夠讀到歐幾里得與托勒密的光學書,這顯示在其已佚著作的標題中:《本書總結了分別由歐幾里得和托勒密所著的兩本光學書,並補全了托勒密的書所缺失的第一講中的概念》。出處:Ibn Abi Usaibia(英語:Ibn Abi Usaibia)的目錄,引自(Smith 2001) harv error: multiple targets (4×): CITEREFSmith2001 (help):91(vol .1), p. xv
"[Ibn al-Haytham] followed Ptolemy's bridge building ... into a grand synthesis of light and vision. Part of his effort consisted in devising ranges of experiments, of a kind probed before but now undertaken on larger scale."— Cohen 2010,第59頁
其譯者克雷莫納的傑拉德(Gerard of Cremona, 約1114–1187)着迷於《至大論》,便來至托萊多,因為他知道在那裏可以找到《至大論》的阿拉伯語文本。他在那裏見到了所有種類的阿拉伯語書籍;他學習阿拉伯語,以將這些書籍譯成拉丁文,因為他意識到「拉丁語文獻之貧乏」。——引自Burnett, Charles. The Coherence of the Arabic-Latin Translation Program in Toledo in the Twelfth Century. Science in Context. 2002, 14: 249–88. doi:10.1017/S0269889701000096.
Kepler, Johannes (1604) Ad Vitellionem paralipomena, quibus astronomiae pars opticae traditur (Supplements to Witelo, in which the optical part of astronomy is treated) as cited in Smith, A. Mark. What Is the History of Medieval Optics Really about?. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 1 January 2004, 148 (2): 180–94. JSTOR 1558283. PMID 15338543.
The full title translation is from p. 60 of James R. Voelkel (2001) Johannes Kepler and the New Astronomy Oxford University Press. 開普勒是在1600年7月10日於格拉茨觀測了日偏食之後想到要做這個實驗的。他使用第谷·布拉赫的觀察手段,也就是把太陽的像通過一個針孔投影到一張紙上,而不是直接對着太陽看。他不同意布拉赫關於日全食不可能發生的結論,因為歷史上有過日全食的記錄;而是根據這次觀測推論,孔的口徑決定成像的銳度(孔越大,像越精確——這個事實如今對光學系統設計來說很基本)。Voelkel, p. 61, 注意到開普勒的實驗第一次正確的描述了視覺和眼睛,因為開普勒意識到,若要對天文觀測作精確的著述,就不能對眼睛置之不論。
Principe, Lawrence M. Introduction. Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction First. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. 2011: 1–3. ISBN 978-0-199-56741-6.
Lindberg, David C. Conceptions of the Scientific Revolution from Baker to Butterfield: A preliminary sketch. David C. Lindberg; Robert S. Westman (編). Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution First. Chicago, Illinois: Cambridge University Press. 1990: 1–26. ISBN 978-0-521-34262-9.
Del Soldato, Eva. Zalta, Edward N. , 編. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Fall 2016. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2016 [2019-05-16]. (原始內容存檔於2019-12-11).
Cahan, David (編). From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. 2003. ISBN 978-0-226-08928-7.
Lightman, Bernard. 13. Science and the Public. Shank, Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter (編). Wrestling with Nature : From Omens to Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 2011: 367. ISBN 978-0226317830.
Harrison, Peter (2015). The Territories of Science and Religion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 164–165. ISBN 978-0-226-18451-7. The changing character of those engaged in scientific endeavors was matched by a new nomenclature for their endeavors. The most conspicuous marker of this change was the replacement of "natural philosophy" by "natural science". In 1800 few had spoken of the "natural sciences" but by 1880, this expression had overtaken the traditional label "natural philosophy". The persistence of "natural philosophy" in the twentieth century is owing largely to historical references to a past practice (see figure 11). As should now be apparent, this was not simply the substitution of one term by another, but involved the jettisoning of a range of personal qualities relating to the conduct of philosophy and the living of the philosophical life.
Bunge, Mario. The Scientific Approach. Philosophy of Science: Volume 1, From Problem to Theory 1 revised. New York, New York: Routledge. 1998: 3–50. ISBN 978-0-765-80413-6.
Fetzer, James H. Computer reliability and public policy: Limits of knowledge of computer-based systems. Computers and Cognition: Why Minds are not Machines 1st. Newcastle, United Kingdom: Kluwer Academic Publishers. 2013: 271–308. ISBN 978-1-443-81946-6.
Rochberg, Francesca. Ch.1 Natural Knowledge in Ancient Mesopotamia. Shank, Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter (編). Wrestling with Nature : From Omens to Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 2011: 9. ISBN 978-0226317830.
Lehoux, Daryn. 2. Natural Knowledge in the Classical World. Shank, Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter (編). Wrestling with Nature : From Omens to Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 2011: 39. ISBN 978-0226317830.
"Progress or Return" in An Introduction to Political Philosophy: Ten Essays by Leo Strauss (Expanded version of Political Philosophy: Six Essays by Leo Strauss, 1975.) Ed. Hilail Gilden. Detroit: Wayne State UP, 1989.
Smith, A. Mark, What is the History of Medieval Optics Really About?, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, June 2004, 148 (2): 180–94, JSTOR 1558283, PMID 15338543
Wildberg, Christian. Zalta, Edward N. , 編. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. May 1, 2018 [2019-05-04]. (原始內容存檔於2019-08-22) –透過Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Klein-Frank, F. Al-Kindi. In Leaman, O & Nasr, H (2001). History of Islamic Philosophy. London: Routledge. p. 165. Felix Klein-Frank (2001) Al-Kindi, pp. 166–67. In Oliver Leaman & Hossein Nasr. History of Islamic Philosophy. London: Routledge.
Toomer, G.J. Reviewed work: Ibn al-Haythams Weg zur Physik, Matthias Schramm. Isis. 1964, 55 (4): 463–65. JSTOR 228328. See p. 464: "Schramm sums up [Ibn Al-Haytham's] achievement in the development of scientific method.", p. 465: "Schramm has demonstrated .. beyond any dispute that Ibn al-Haytham is a major figure in the Islamic scientific tradition, particularly in the creation of experimental techniques." p. 465: "only when the influence of ibn al-Haytam and others on the mainstream of later medieval physical writings has been seriously investigated can Schramm's claim that ibn al-Haytam was the true founder of modern physics be evaluated."
Smith, A. Mark. Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's "De aspectibus", the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's "Kitāb al-Manāẓir": Volume One. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. 2001, 91 (4): i–337. JSTOR 3657358.
Goldstein, Bernard R. Copernicus and the Origin of his Heliocentric System. Journal for the History of Astronomy. 2016, 33 (3): 219–35. doi:10.1177/002182860203300301.
Cohen, Floris. How modern science came into the world. Four civilizations, one 17th-century breakthrough Second. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. 2010. ISBN 9789089642394.
Ross, Sydney. Scientist: The story of a word. Annals of Science(英語:Annals of Science). 1962, 18 (2): 65–85. doi:10.1080/00033796200202722. 使用|accessdate=需要含有|url= (幫助) 確切說來,Whewell於1834年提到創造「科學家」這個詞的人時只說那是「一位聰明的紳士」。Ross加了一條註釋,說這個「某聰明的紳士」就是Whewell自己,但未給出此斷言的理由。Ross 1962, p. 72.
Rashid, S. Tamir; Alexander, Graeme J.M. Induced pluripotent stem cells: from Nobel Prizes to clinical applications. Journal of Hepatology. March 2013, 58 (3): 625–629. ISSN 1600-0641. PMID 23131523. doi:10.1016/j.jhep.2012.10.026.
Mujumdar, Anshu Gupta; Singh, Tejinder. Cognitive science and the connection between physics and mathematics. Anthony Aguirre; Brendan Foster (編). Trick or Truth?: The Mysterious Connection Between Physics and Mathematics. The Frontiers Collection 1st. Switzerland: SpringerNature. 2016: 201–218. ISBN 978-3-319-27494-2.
Oglivie, Brian W. Introduction. The Science of Describing: Natural History in Renaissance Europe Paperback. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. 2008: 1–24. ISBN 978-0-226-62088-6.
C.S. Peirce (July 1879) "Note on the Progress of Experiments for Comparing a Wave-length with a Metre" American Journal of Science, as referenced by Crease 2011,第203頁 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFCrease2011 (help)
di Francia 1976,第13頁: "The amazing point is that for the first time since the discovery of mathematics, a method has been introduced, the results of which have an intersubjective value!" (Author's punctuation)
di Francia 1976,第4–5頁: "One learns in a laboratory; one learns how to make experiments only by experimenting, and one learns how to work with his hands only by using them. The first and fundamental form of experimentation in physics is to teach young people to work with their hands. Then they should be taken into a laboratory and and taught to work with measuring instruments — each student carrying out real experiments in physics. This form of teaching is indispensable and cannot be read in a book."
理查·費曼. The Feynman Lectures on Physics [費曼物理學講義] 卷1. 艾迪生韋斯利. 1999. ISBN 978-0201021165. And the usual way of dealing with quantum mechanics makes that subject almost unavailable for the great majority of students because they have to take so long to learn it. Yet, in its real applications—especially in its more complex applications, such as in electrical engineering and chemistry—the full machinery of the differential equation approach is not actually used.
原文為「This is the key of modern science and is the beginning of the true understanding of nature. This idea. That to look at the things, to record the details, and to hope that in the information thus obtained, may lie a clue to one or another of a possible theoretical interpretation...The next question was — what makes planets go around the sun? At the time of Kepler some people answered this problem by saying that there were angels behind them beating their wings and pushing the planets around an orbit. As you will see, the answer is not very far from the truth. The only difference is that the angels sit in a different direction and their wings push inward.」具體出處詳見其英文維基語錄。
原話為「It can scarcely be denied that the supreme goal of all theory is to make the irreducible basic elements as simple and as few as possible without having to surrender the adequate representation of a single datum of experience.」常簡作「Everything should be made as simple as possible, but no simpler.」具體出處詳見其英文維基語錄。
Fred Barbash. Major publisher retracts 43 scientific papers amid wider fake peer-review scandal. 華盛頓郵報. 2015年3月27日 [2016年1月6日]. (原始內容存檔於2015年12月30日). But Jigisha Patel, associate editorial director for research integrity at BioMed Central, said it’s not 'a China problem. We get a lot of robust research of China. We see this as a broader problem of how scientists are judged.'
Eusocial climbers(PDF). E.O. Wilson Foundation. [3 September 2018]. (原始內容存檔(PDF)於2019-04-27). But he’s not a scientist, he’s never done scientific research. My definition of a scientist is that you can complete the following sentence: 『he or she has shown that...』,」 Wilson says.
Our definition of a scientist. Science Council. [7 September 2018]. (原始內容存檔於2019-08-23). A scientist is someone who systematically gathers and uses research and evidence, making a hypothesis and testing it, to gain and share understanding and knowledge.
Spanier, Bonnie. From Molecules to Brains, Normal Science Supports Sexist Beliefs about Difference. Im/partial Science: Gender Identity in Molecular Biology. Indiana University Press. 1995. ISBN 9780253209689.
Rosser, Sue V. Breaking into the Lab: Engineering Progress for Women in Science. New York: New York University Press. 2012-03-12: 7. ISBN 978-0-8147-7645-2.
Goulden, Mark; Frasch, Karie; Mason, Mary Ann. Staying Competitive: Patching America's Leaky Pipeline in the Sciences. University of Berkeley Law. 2009.
原文為「I do not believe that science can disprove the existence of God; I think that is impossible. And if it is impossible, is not a belief in science and in a God – an ordinary God of religion — a consistent possibility? Yes, it is consistent. Despite the fact that I said that more than half of the scientists don't believe in God, many scientists do believe in both science and God, in a perfectly consistent way. But this consistency, although possible, is not easy to attain...」摘自費曼《科學與宗教的關係》
原文為「I would like to remark, in passing, since the word "atheism" is so closely connected with "communism," that the communist views are the antithesis of the scientific, in the sense that in communism the answers are given to all the questions – political questions as well as moral ones – without discussion and without doubt. The scientific viewpoint is the exact opposite of this; that is, all questions must be doubted and discussed; we must argue everything out – observe things, check them, and so change them. The democratic government is much closer to this idea, because there is discussion and a chance of modification. One doesn't launch the ship in a definite direction. It is true that if you have a tyranny of ideas, so that you know exactly what has to be true, you act very decisively, and it looks good – for a while. But soon the ship is heading in the wrong direction, and no one can modify the direction any more. So the uncertainties of life in a democracy are, I think, much more consistent with science.」摘自費曼《科學與宗教的關係》
di Francia, Giuliano Toraldo. The Investigation of the Physical World. Originally published in Italian as L'Indagine del Mondo Fisico by Giulio Einaudi editore 1976; first published in English by Cambridge University Press 1981. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1976. ISBN 978-0-521-29925-1.
Smith, A. Mark. 寫於費城. Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's De Aspectibus, the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's Kitāb al-Manāẓir, 2 vols. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 91. 費城: 美國哲學會. 2001. ISBN 978-0-87169-914-5. OCLC 47168716. doi:10.2307/3657358. |issue=被忽略 (幫助)
Smith, A. Mark. Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's "De aspectibus", the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's "Kitāb al-Manāẓir": Volume One. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. 2001, 91 (4): i–337. JSTOR 3657358.
Smith, A. Mark. Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's "De aspectibus", the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's "Kitāb al-Manāẓir": Volume Two. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. 2001, 91 (5): 339–819. JSTOR 3657357.
Stanovich, Keith E. How to Think Straight About Psychology. Boston: Pearson Education. 2007. ISBN 978-0-205-68590-5.
Ziman, John. Reliable knowledge: An exploration of the grounds for belief in science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1978. ISBN 978-0-521-22087-3.
Burguete, Maria, and Lam, Lui, eds.(2014). All About Science: Philosophy, History, Sociology & Communication. World Scientific: Singapore. ISBN978-981-4472-92-0
Cole, K. C., Things your teacher never told you about science: Nine shocking revelationsNewsday, 長島, 紐約, March 23, 1986, pp. 21+
Feynman, Richard P. Robbins, Jeffrey , 編. The Pleasure of Finding Things Out: The Best Short Works of Richard P. Feynman [發現的快樂]. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Perseus Books Group. 1999. ISBN 978-0-465-02395-0. OCLC 181597764.