有“现代物理学之父”之誉的爱因斯坦在其作品《我的世界观（英语：The World as I See It (book)）》中是这样否定上帝： “我无法想象存在这样一个上帝，它会对自己的创造物加以赏罚……我不能也不愿去想象一个人在肉体死亡以后还会继续活着。”但事实上，爱因斯坦形容自己为不可知论者，并不同意专业无神论者般的十字军精神；更仔细解释，由于人类对于大自然与自己本身的了解可能有缺失，因此应该采取谨慎谦卑的态度。美国犹太领袖拉比赫伯特·高德斯坦（英语：Herbert S. Goldstein）曾经问他是否相信神？他回答说：“我相信斯宾诺莎的神，一个通过存在事物的和谐有序体现自己的神，而不是一个关心人类命运和行为的神。”换句话说，爱因斯坦认为，从宇宙世界的存在，可以感觉到神的伟大工作，但神并不会干预人们的日常生活，神是非人格化的神[26]:389-390。爱因斯坦曾经在书信里表示：“我不相信人格化的神，我从未否认这一点，而且表达得很清楚。如果在我的内心里有什么能被称之为宗教，那就是，对于我们的科学所能够揭示的世界结构，对于这世界结构的无垠的敬仰。”[27]:43[28]
由于对无神论的定义各不相同，因此很难准确估计目前无神论者的人数[34]。根据温—盖洛普国际（英语：WIN/GIA）在全球范围内的研究显示，2012年有13%的受访者是“坚定的无神论者”[35]，2015年有11%是“坚定的无神论者”[36]，2017年有9%是“坚定的无神论者”[37]。其他研究人员建议谨慎对待温—盖洛普国际的统计数字，因为几十年来使用相同统计方法且样本量更大的其他调查得出的数字一直偏低[38]。英国广播公司2004年进行的一个调查显示，无神论者为全世界人口的8％[39]。其他较早的估计表明，无神论者占世界人口的2%，而无宗教者占12%[40]。这些民调显示欧洲和东亚是无神论占比最高的地区。2015年，中国有61%的人报告称他们是无神论者（英语：Irreligion in China）[41]。2010年欧洲联盟的欧洲晴雨表调查数字显示，20%的欧盟人口声称不相信“任何种类的灵魂、神或生命力”的存在，其中法国（40%）和瑞典（34%）占比最高[42]。
跨国研究结果表明教育程度和不相信上帝有正相关性[43][44]，事实上无神论在科学家中所占地比例更高这一趋势在20世纪初就比较明显，而到20世纪末成为科学家中的多数。美国心理学家詹姆士·柳巴（英语：James H. Leuba）1914年随机调查1000位美国自然科学家，其中58％“不相信或怀疑神的存在”。同一调查在1996年重复了一次(《自然》杂志1998年刊登的文章)[45]，得出60.7％的类似结果, 而且美国科学院院士中这一比例高达93％。肯定回答不相信神的比例从52％升高至72％。调查显示美国国家科学院院士之中相信人格神或来世的人数处于历史低点，相信人格神的只占7%，远低于美国人口的85%比例。
哲学家安东尼·弗鲁[77]，迈克尔·马丁（Michael Martin）[63]，以及威廉·L·罗伊（William L. Rowe）[78]等人将无神论分为强（积极）与弱（消极）两类。强无神论清楚地宣称神不存在，弱无神论则包含了所有形式的非有神论。根据此分类，所有的非有神论者都必然是强或弱无神论者[79]，而绝大多数不可知论者都是弱无神论者。与积极和消极相比，强和弱两词用以形容无神论则相对较晚，但至少在1813年[80][81]就已经出现在了各类（虽然用法略有不同）哲学著作[77]与天主教的辩惑[82]之中。
当马丁等哲学家把不可知论归类为弱无神论的时候[70]，绝大多数的不可知论者并不认为自己是无神论者，在他们看来无神论并不比有神论更加合理[83]。支持或否定神存在的知识的不可获得性有时被看作无神论必须经历“信仰飞跃（Leap of Faith）”的标示[84]。一般无神论者对这一论证的反驳包括：未经证实的宗教命题应和其他的未证实命题受到同样多的怀疑[85]，以及神存在与否的不可证明性并不代表两种可能的概率相等[86]。苏格兰哲学家J. J. C.斯马特甚至说道：“因为一种过于笼统的哲学怀疑论，有时一个真正的无神论者可能会，甚至是强烈地，表达自己为一个不可知论者，这种过分的怀疑论将阻碍我们肯定自己对或许除数学或逻辑定理以外的任何知识的理解。”[87]因此，一些知名的无神论作家如理查德·道金斯更倾向于依据“有多大程度相信神存在”的光谱来区分有神论者，不可知论者与无神论者。[88]
逻辑实证主义与科学主义为随后的新实证主义、分析哲学、结构主义以及自然主义铺平了道路。新实证主义和分析哲学抛弃了古典理性主义与形而上学，转向严格的经验主义与认识论的唯名论。支持者诸如伯特兰·罗素等断然地拒绝信仰神。路德维希·维特根斯坦在他的早期工作中曾试图将形而上学与超自然的语言从理性论述中分离开来。A.J.艾耶尔断言宗教陈述具有不可证明性与无意义性，援引了自己对经验科学的坚定信仰。列维-斯特劳斯的应用结构主义否定了宗教语言的玄奥意味，认为它们都源自于人类的潜意识。J. N.芬德利和J. J. C.斯马特论证称神的存在在逻辑上是非必然的。自然主义者与唯物主义一元论者如约翰·杜威认为自然世界是万物的基础，否认了神与不朽的存在[87][150]。
跨国研究结果表明教育程度和不相信上帝有正相关性[43]，欧盟的调查显示辍学和相信上帝有正相关性[42]。无神论在科学家中所占比例更高这一趋势在20世纪初比较明显，到20世纪末成为科学家中的多数。美国心理学家詹姆士·柳巴（英语：James H. Leuba）1914年随机调查1000位美国自然科学家，其中58％“不相信或怀疑神的存在”。同一调查在1996年重复了一次，得出60.7％的类似结果。美国科学院院士中这一比例高达93％。肯定回答不相信神的比例从52％升高至72％[170]。《自然》杂志1998年刊登的文章指出，调查显示美国国家科学院院士之中相信人格神或来世的人数处于历史低点，相信人格神的只占7%，远低于美国人口的85%比例[171]。《芝加哥大学纪事报》的文章则指出，76%的医生相信上帝，比例高于科学家的7%，但仍比一般人口的85%为低[172]。同年，麻省理工学院的弗兰克·萨洛韦和加利福尼亚大学的迈克尔·舍默进行研究显示，高学历的美国成年人（调查样本中12%持有博士学位，62%是大学毕业生）之中有64%相信上帝，而宗教信念与教育水平有负相关性[173]。门萨国际出版的杂志的文章指出，1927年至2002年之间进行的39个研究显示，对宗教的虔诚和智力有负相关性[174]。这些研究结果与牛津大学教授迈克尔·阿盖尔进行的元分析结果近似，他分析了7个研究美国学生对宗教的态度和智力商数的关系。虽然发现负相关性，该分析没有提出两者之间存在因果关系，并指出家庭环境、社会阶级等因素的影响[175]。
同时期的英国政治哲学家马丁·科恩（Martin Cohen）给出了许多圣经中的支持酷刑和奴隶的训谕的例子，作为宗教训谕是随着政治和社会发展而不是相反情况的佐证，同时指出了这一趋势对看似冷静客观的哲学发展也是适用的[201]。科恩在其著作《政治哲学：从柏拉图到毛泽东》（Political Philosophy from Plato to Mao）以《古兰经》为例详述了这一观点，他认为《古兰经》在历史上起了一个保护中世纪的社会准则不受时代变化影响的不良作用[202]。
威廉·L·罗（William L. Rowe），“无神论”（Atheism），《Routledge哲学百科全书》（Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy），1998年：“无神论的立场是认为神不存在，即明确的不相信，而不是信仰缺失。”注： 缺失在汉语中含义是：缺陷;缺点和失误, 有贬低无神论的含义.
Simon Blackburn (编). atheism. The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy 2008. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2008 [2013-11-21]. （原始内容存档于2021-03-12）. Either the lack of belief that there exists a god, or the belief that there exists none. Sometimes thought itself to be more dogmatic than mere agnosticism, although atheists retort that everyone is an atheist about most gods, so they merely advance one step further.
Most dictionaries (see the OneLook query for "atheism" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）) first list one of the more narrow definitions.
Runes, Dagobert D.(editor). Dictionary of Philosophy. New Jersey: Littlefield, Adams & Co. Philosophical Library. 1942 [2011-04-09]. ISBN 0-06-463461-2. （原始内容存档于2011-05-13）. (a) the belief that there is no God; (b) Some philosophers have been called "atheistic" because they have not held to a belief in a personal God. Atheism in this sense means "not theistic". The former meaning of the term is a literal rendering. The latter meaning is a less rigorous use of the term though widely current in the history of thought – entry by Vergilius Ferm
Nielsen 2013: "atheism, in general, the critique and denial of metaphysical beliefs in God or spiritual beings. As such, it is usually distinguished from theism, which affirms the reality of the divine and often seeks to demonstrate its existence. Atheism is also distinguished from agnosticism, which leaves open the question whether there is a god or not, professing to find the questions unanswered or unanswerable."
Edwards 2005: "On our definition, an 'atheist' is a person who rejects belief in God, regardless of whether or not his reason for the rejection is the claim that 'God exists' expresses a false proposition. People frequently adopt an attitude of rejection toward a position for reasons other than that it is a false proposition. It is common among contemporary philosophers, and indeed it was not uncommon in earlier centuries, to reject positions on the ground that they are meaningless. Sometimes, too, a theory is rejected on such grounds as that it is sterile or redundant or capricious, and there are many other considerations which in certain contexts are generally agreed to constitute good grounds for rejecting an assertion."
Smart, J. J. C. Zalta, Edward N. , 编. Atheism and Agnosticism. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2013 Edition). [2016-05-30]. （原始内容存档于2013-12-02）.
Harvey, Van A. Agnosticism and Atheism, in Flynn 2007，第35页 harvnb模板错误: 无指向目标: CITEREFFlynn2007 (帮助): "The terms ATHEISM and AGNOSTICISM lend themselves to two different definitions. The first takes the privative a both before the Greek theos (divinity) and gnosis (to know) to mean that atheism is simply the absence of belief in the gods and agnosticism is simply lack of knowledge of some specified subject matter. The second definition takes atheism to mean the explicit denial of the existence of gods and agnosticism as the position of someone who, because the existence of gods is unknowable, suspends judgment regarding them ... The first is the more inclusive and recognizes only two alternatives: Either one believes in the gods or one does not. Consequently, there is no third alternative, as those who call themselves agnostics sometimes claim. Insofar as they lack belief, they are really atheists. Moreover, since the absence of belief is the cognitive position in which everyone is born, the burden of proof falls on those who advocate religious belief. The proponents of the second definition, by contrast, regard the first definition as too broad because it includes uninformed children along with aggressive and explicit atheists. Consequently, it is unlikely that the public will adopt it."
Stenger 2007，第17–18页 harvnb模板错误: 无指向目标: CITEREFStenger2007 (帮助), citing Parsons, Keith M. God and the Burden of Proof: Plantinga, Swinburne, and the Analytical Defense of Theism. Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books. 1989. ISBN 978-0-87975-551-5.
阿尔伯特·爱因斯坦，我的世界观（The World as I See It (book)）. [2021-03-04]. （原始内容存档于2020-08-15）. 我无法想象存在这样一个上帝，它会对自己的创造物加以赏罚，会具有我们在自己身上所体验到的那种意志。我不能也不愿去想象一个人在肉体死亡以后还会继续活着；让那些脆弱的灵魂，由于恐惧或者由于可笑的唯我论，去拿这种思想当宝贝吧！
Steven Weinberg, A Designer Universe?, PhysLink.com. [2021-03-08]. （原始内容存档于2019-04-14）. With or without religion, good people can behave well and bad people can do evil; but for good people to do evil—that takes religion.
Keysar, Ariela; Navarro-Rivera, Juhem. 36. A World of Atheism: Global Demographics. Bullivant, Stephen; Ruse, Michael (编). The Oxford Handbook of Atheism. Oxford University Press. 2017. ISBN 978-0-19-964465-0.
2.3% Atheists: Persons professing atheism, skepticism, disbelief, or irreligion, including the militantly antireligious (opposed to all religion).
11.9% Nonreligious: Persons professing no religion, nonbelievers, agnostics, freethinkers, uninterested, or dereligionized secularists indifferent to all religion but not militantly so.
Larson, Edward J.; Larry Witham. Correspondence: Leading scientists still reject God. Nature. 1998, 394 (6691): 313–4. PMID 9690462. doi:10.1038/28478. 引文使用过时参数coauthors (帮助) Available at StephenJayGould.org互联网档案馆的存档，存档日期2014-03-01., Stephen Jay Gould archive. Retrieved on 2006-12-17
Norman L. Geisler and Frank Turek, I Don't Have Enough Faith to Be an Atheist," Crossway Books, March 01, 2004, 447 Pages, ISBN1-58134-561-5
John F. Haught, God and the New Atheism: A Critical Response to Dawkins, Harris, and Hitchens, Westminster John Knox Press, December 31, 2007, 156 pages, ISBN978-0-664-23304-4, page 45
Edis, Taner. Atheism and the Rise of Science. Bullivant, Stephen; Ruse, Michael (编). The Oxford Handbook of Atheism. Oxford University Press. 2013. ISBN 978-0198745075.
Atheism and Science. Investigating Atheism project - Cambridge and Oxford. （原始内容存档于2013-10-30）. Atheists have appealed to science in defence of their atheism since the first avowedly atheistic manuscripts of the mid seventeenth century. However, as the German expert on atheism Winfried Schroeder has shown, the relationship between early modern atheism and science tended to embarrass rather than strengthen the fledgling atheism's case.[1]"; "The renowned Denis Diderot, atheist and deist in turns, could still say in 1746 that science posed a greater threat to atheism than metaphysics.[3] Well into the eighteenth century it could be argued that it was atheism and not theism which required a sacrifice of the intellect. As Schroeder has pointed out, atheists were scientifically retrograde until at least the mid eighteenth century, and suffered from their reputation as scientifically unserious.[4]"; "As John Hedley Brooke has pointed out, for every nineteenth century person considering these issues who followed figures such as Thomas Henry Huxley or Francis Galton in regarding evolution as devastating for religious belief, there were others, such as the Oxford theologian Aubrey Moore, who regarded Darwin's evolutionary theory as an opportunity for religion.[7]At the beginning of the twenty first century the situation remains very similar:..
Schroeder, Winfried. Ursprunge des Atheismus: Untersuchungen zur Metaphysik- und Religionskritik des 17. und 18. Jahrhunderts. Tubingen: Frommann- Holzboog, 1998. Pg 79-80, 291, 297-302
The word αθεοι—in any of its forms—appears nowhere else in the Septuagint or the New Testament. Robertson, A.T. Ephesians: Chapter 2. Word Pictures in the New Testament. Broadman Press. 1960 [1932] [2007-04-12]. （原始内容存档于2021-03-12）. Old Greek word, not in LXX, only here in N.T. Atheists in the original sense of being without God and also in the sense of hostility to God from failure to worship him. See Paul's words in Ro 1:18–32.
Drachmann, A. B. Atheism in Pagan Antiquity. Chicago: Ares Publishers. 1977（"an unchanged reprint of the 1922 edition"）. ISBN 0-89005-201-8. Atheism and atheist are words formed from Greek roots and with Greek derivative endings. Nevertheless they are not Greek; their formation is not consonant with Greek usage. In Greek they said atheos and atheotēs; to these the English words ungodly and ungodliness correspond rather closely. In exactly the same way as ungodly, atheos was used as an expression of severe censure and moral condemnation; this use is an old one, and the oldest that can be traced. Not till later do we find it employed to denote a certain philosophical creed.请检查|date=中的日期值 (帮助)
Rendered as Athisme: Golding, Arthur; Philip Sidney. Mornay's Woorke concerning the Trewnesse of the Christian Religion, written in French; Against Atheists, Epicures, Paynims, Iewes, Mahumetists, and other infidels. London. 1587: xx. 310. Athisme, that is to say, vtter godlesnes.引文使用过时参数coauthors (帮助) Translation of De la verite de la religion chrestienne（1581）。
Rendered as Atheistes: Golding, Arthur. The Psalmes of David and others, with J. Calvin's commentaries. 1571: Ep. Ded. 3. The Atheistes which say..there is no God. Translated from French.
Hanmer, Meredith. The auncient ecclesiasticall histories of the first six hundred years after Christ, written by Eusebius, Socrates, and Evagrius. London. 1577: 63. OCLC 55193813. The opinion which they conceaue of you, to be Atheists, or godlesse men.
Martin, Edward. Five Letters. His opinion concerning the difference between the Church of England and Geneva [etc.]. London. 1662: 45. To have said my office..twice a day..among Rebels, Theists, Atheists, Philologers, Wits, Masters of Reason, Puritanes [etc.].
"Secondly, that nothing out of nothing, in the sense of the atheistic objectors, viz. that nothing, which once was not, could by any power whatsoever be brought into being, is absolutely false; and that, if it were true, it would make no more against theism than it does against atheism.." Cudworth, Ralph. The true intellectual system of the universe. 1678. Chapter V Section II p.73
Dryden, John. Religio laici, or A laymans faith, a poem. London. 1682: Preface. OCLC 11081103. …namely, that Deism, or the principles of natural worship, are only the faint remnants or dying flames of revealed religion in the posterity of Noah…
The Oxford English Dictionary also records an earlier, irregular formation, atheonism, dated from about 1534. The later and now obsolete words athean and atheal are dated to 1611 and 1612 respectively. prep. by J. A. Simpson ... The Oxford English Dictionary Second Edition. Oxford University Press, USA. 1989. ISBN 0-19-861186-2. 引文格式1维护：冗余文本 (link)
In part because of its wide use in monotheistic Western society, atheism is usually described as "disbelief in God", rather than more generally as "disbelief in deities". A clear distinction is rarely drawn in modern writings between these two definitions, but some archaic uses of atheism encompassed only disbelief in the singular God, not in polytheistic deities. It is on this basis that the obsolete term adevism was coined in the late 19th century to describe an absence of belief in plural deities. Britannica. Atheonism. Encyclopædia Britannica 11th Edition. 1911. 引文格式1维护：冗余文本 (link)
Flew, Antony. "The Presumption of Atheism". The Presumption of Atheism and other Philosophical Essays on God, Freedom, and Immortality. New York: Barnes and Noble, 1976. pp 14ff.
Kenny, Anthony. Why I Am Not an Atheist. What I believe. Continuum. 2006. ISBN 0-8264-8971-0. The true default position is neither theism nor atheism, but agnosticism…a claim to knowledge needs to be substantiated; ignorance need only be confessed.
Baggini 2003，第30–34页. "Who seriously claims we should say 'I neither believe nor disbelieve that the Pope is a robot', or 'As to whether or not eating this piece of chocolate will turn me into an elephant I am completely agnostic'. In the absence of any good reasons to believe these outlandish claims, we rightly disbelieve them, we don't just suspend judgement."
Baggini 2003，第22页. "A lack of proof is no grounds for the suspension of belief. This is because when we have a lack of absolute proof we can still have overwhelming evidence or one explanation which is far superior to the alternatives."
Cudworth, Ralph. The true intellectual system of the universe. 1678. Dawkins, Richard. The God Delusion. Bantam Books: 2006, p. 50.（ISBN 978-0-618-68000-9）
Translation of Latin text from "Summa impietas （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）"（1552）, Picta poesis, by Barthélemy Aneau. Glasgow University Emblem Website. Retrieved on 2007-03-26.
V.A. Gunasekara, The Buddhist Attitude to God.. （原始内容存档于2008-01-02）. In the Bhuridatta Jataka, "The Buddha argues that the three most commonly given attributes of God, viz. omnipotence, omniscience and benevolence towards humanity cannot all be mutually compatible with the existential fact of dukkha."
觀瀾索源:先秦兩漢思想史新探. Taiwan Resource Center for Chinese Studies at UW-EAL. Wan juan lou tu shu gu fen you xian gong si. 2018: 329-331 [2023-06-25]. ISBN 978-986-478-209-3. （原始内容存档于2023-06-25） （中文）.
Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Charles A. Moore. A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy.（Princeton University Press: 1957, Twelfth Princeton Paperback printing 1989）pp. 227–249. ISBN 978-0-691-01958-1.
Baggini 2003，第73–74页. "Atheism had its origins in Ancient Greece but did not emerge as an overt and avowed belief system until late in the Enlightenment."
...nullos esse omnino Diagoras et Theodorus Cirenaicus... Cicero, Marcus Tullius: De natura deorum. Comments and English text by Richard D. McKirahan. Thomas Library, Bryn Mawr College, 1997, page 3. ISBN 978-0-929524-89-4
Fragments of Euhemerus' work in Ennius' Latin translation have been preserved in Patristic writings（e.g. by Lactantius and Eusebius of Caesarea）, which all rely on earlier fragments in Diodorus 5,41–46 & 6.1. Testimonies, especially in the context of polemical criticism, are found e.g. in Callimachus, Hymn to Zeus 8.
恺撒（100–44 BCE）, who leaned considerably toward Epicureanism, also rejected the idea of an afterlife, which e.g. lead to his plea against the death sentence during the trial against Catiline, where he spoke out against the StoicistCato（cf. Sallust, The War With Catiline, Caesar's speech: 51.29 & Cato's reply: 52.13）。
Larson, Edward J.; Larry Witham. Correspondence: Leading scientists still reject God. Nature. 1998, 394 (6691): 313–4. PMID 9690462. doi:10.1038/28478. 引文使用过时参数coauthors (帮助) Available at StephenJayGould.org互联网档案馆的存档，存档日期2014-03-01., Stephen Jay Gould archive. Retrieved on 2006-12-17
Survey on physicians’ religious beliefs shows majority faithful. The University of Chicago. [2007-10-18]. （原始内容存档于2011-04-26）. The first study of physician religious beliefs has found that 76 percent of doctors believe in God and 59 percent believe in some sort of afterlife. The survey, performed by researchers at the University and published in the July issue of the Journal of General Internal Medicine, found that 90 percent of doctors in the United States attend religious services at least occasionally compared to 81 percent of all adults.
Norman L. Geisler and Frank Turek, I Don't Have Enough Faith to Be an Atheist," Crossway Books, March 01, 2004, 447 Pages, ISBN1-58134-561-5
John F. Haught, God and the New Atheism: A Critical Response to Dawkins, Harris, and Hitchens, Westminster John Knox Press, December 31, 2007, 156 pages, ISBN978-0-664-23304-4, page 45
Murphy, Peter. Dogmatic Atheism and Scientific Ignorance. World Union of Deists. [2 October 2016]. （原始内容存档于2013-11-28）. The repeated arguments presented by atheists using science as evidence against the existence of God is erroneous -- and can be demonstrated such." and "This essay from this point will refer to active atheists as dogmatic atheists to better reflect their true mindset.
Smith 1979，第275页. "Among the many myths associated with religion, none is more widespread -or more disastrous in its effects -than the myth that moral values cannot be divorced from the belief in a god."
In Dostoevsky's The Brothers Karamazov（Book Eleven: Brother Ivan Fyodorovich, Chapter 4）there is the famous argument that If there is no God, all things are permitted.: "'But what will become of men then?' I asked him, 'without God and immortal life? All things are lawful then, they can do what they like?'"
For Kant, the presupposition of God, soul, and freedom was a practical concern, for "Morality, by itself, constitutes a system, but happiness does not, unless it is distributed in exact proportion to morality. This, however, is possible in an intelligible world only under a wise author and ruler. Reason compels us to admit such a ruler, together with life in such a world, which we must consider as future life, or else all moral laws are to be considered as idle dreams..."（Critique of Pure Reason, A811）。
101 Ethical Dilemmas, 2nd edition, by Cohen, M., Routledge 2007, pp184-5.（Cohen notes particularly that Plato and Aristotle produced arguments in favour of slavery.）
Harris, Sam. An Atheist Manifesto. Truthdig. 2005 [2006-10-29]. （原始内容存档于2011-05-16）. In a world riven by ignorance, only the atheist refuses to deny the obvious: Religious faith promotes human violence to an astonishing degree.
American Atheists, <Ethics Without Gods>. [2021-03-01]. （原始内容存档于2020-11-24）. Ethical behavior – regardless of who the practitioner may be – results always from the same causes and is regulated by the same forces, and has nothing to do with the presence or absence of religious belief. The nature of these causes and forces is the subject of this essay.
Mona Chalabi， Are Prisoners Less Likely To Be Atheists?， MAR. 12, 2015. [2021-03-01]. （原始内容存档于2021-02-27）. I recently read an article that said most of the prison population is religious while there are very few atheists in prison....Most importantly though, Caroline, you appear to be right about religiosity in prison. Overall, almost 1 in every 1,000 prisoners will identify as atheist compared to 1 in every 100 Americans.
In 2021, atheists made up only 0.1% of the federal prison population. [2023-06-22]. （原始内容存档于2023-06-22）. When finding an openly nonreligious inmate in prison is like finding a needle in a haystack, it’s harder for Christian apologists and pastors to argue that faith is necessary to keep people on a righteous path.
ADRIAN BARDON. The Truth About Denial Bias and Self- Deception in Science, Politics, and Religion. Oxford University Press. 2020: Section 4.1. 使用|accessdate=需要含有|url= (帮助)
大卫·本特利·哈特. Atheist Delusions: The Christian Revolution and its Fashionable Enemies. Yale University Press. 2009: 12–13. “一些人因为他们的信仰命令他们去杀戮”，“另外一些人因为没有信仰而认为任何行为都是被允许的。多神论者、一神论者和无神论者均杀戮，如果以20世纪为例，最后一帮人杀得最多“
Interview with Richard Dawkins conducted by Stephen Sackur for BBC News 24's HardTalk programme, July 24th 2007. Archived copy. [December 23, 2015]. （原始内容存档于February 29, 2008）.
Edwards, Paul. Atheism. Donald M. Borchert (编). The Encyclopedia of PhilosophyVol. 1 2nd. MacMillan Reference USA (Gale): 359. 2005 [1967]. ISBN 978-0-02-865780-6.
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