Ethnic groups in Europe

"Europeans" redirects here. For other uses, see Europeans (disambiguation) and The Europeans (disambiguation).

Europeans are the focus of European ethnology, the field of anthropology related to the various ethnic groups that reside in the states of Europe. Groups may be defined by common ancestry, common language, common faith, etc.

The total number of national minority populations in Europe is estimated at 105 million people, or 14% of 770 million Europeans in 2002.^[1] The Russians are the most populous among Europeans, with a population of roughly 120 million.^[2] There are no universally accepted and precise definitions of the terms "ethnic group" and "nationality". In the context of European ethnography in particular, the terms ethnic group, people, nationality and ethno-linguistic group are used as mostly synonymous, although preference may vary in usage with respect to the situation specific to the individual countries of Europe.^[3]

Overview

Further information: Demographics of Europe

In 2021, the number of non-EU nationals living in EU members states was 23.7 million (5.3% of the EU population). The countries with the largest population of non-nationals were Germany, Spain, France and Italy. These four Member States represented 70.3% of all non-EU nationals living in the EU Member States.^[4] The population of the European Union, with some 450 million residents, accounts for two thirds of the current European population.

Both Spain and the United Kingdom are special cases, in that the designation of nationality, Spanish and British, may controversially^{[citation needed]} take ethnic aspects, subsuming various regional ethnic groups (see nationalisms and regionalisms of Spain and native populations of the United Kingdom). Switzerland is a similar case, but the linguistic subgroups of the Swiss are discussed in terms of both ethnicity and language affiliations.

Linguistic classifications

Further information: Languages of Europe

Of the total population of Europe of some 740 million (as of 2010), close to 90% (or some 650 million) fall within three large branches of Indo-European languages, these being:

• Germanic, including Danish, Dutch, English, Faroese, Frisian, German, Gütnish, Hunsrik, Icelandic, Limburgish, Low Saxon, Luxembourgish, Norwegian, Scots, Swedish, and Yiddish.^[5] Afrikaans, a daughter language of Dutch, is spoken by some South African and Namibian migrant populations.
• Romance, including Aromanian, Arpitan, Asturian, Catalan, Corsican, French and other Langues d'oïl, Friulian, Galician, Istro-Romanian, Italian, Ligurian, Ladino, Megleno-Romanian, Occitan, Portuguese, Romanian, Romansh, Sardinian, Spanish and Venetian.
• Slavic, including Belarusian, Bosnian, Bulgarian, Czech, Kashubian, Macedonian, Polish, Russian, Rusyn, Serbian Croatian, Silesian, Slovak, Slovenian, Sorbian and Ukrainian.

Three stand-alone Indo-European languages do not fall within larger sub-groups and are not closely related to those larger language families:

• Greek (about 12 million)
• Albanian (about 9 million)
• Armenian (about 3.5 million)

In addition, there are also smaller sub-groups within the Indo-European languages of Europe, including:

• Baltic, including Latvian, Lithuanian, Samogitian and Latgalian.
• Celtic, including Breton, Cornish, Irish, Manx, Welsh, and Scottish Gaelic.
• Iranic, mainly Ossetian and Tats in the Caucasus.
• Indo-Aryan is represented by the Romani language spoken by Roma people of eastern Europe, and is at root related to the Indo-Aryan languages of the Indian subcontinent.

Besides the Indo-European languages, there are other language families on the European continent which are considered unrelated to Indo-European:

• Uralic languages, including Estonian, Finnish, Hungarian, Komi, Livonian, Mari, Mordvin, Sámi, Samoyedic, and Udmurt.
• Turkic languages, including Azeri, Bashkir, Chuvash, Gagauz, Kazakh, Nogai, Tatar, Turkish, Crimean Tatar.
• Semitic languages, including: Assyrian Neo-Aramaic (spoken in parts of eastern Turkey and the Caucasus by Assyrian Christians), Hebrew (spoken by some Jewish populations), and Maltese. Arabic is spoken by some migrant communities from the Middle East and North Africa.
• Kartvelian languages (also known as South Caucasian languages), including Georgian, Zan (Mingrelian and Laz), and Svan.
• Northwest Caucasian languages, including Abkhaz, Abaza, Circassian (Adyghe and Kabardian), and Ubykh.
• Northeast Caucasian languages, including Avar, Chechen, Dargin, Ingush, Lak, and Lezgian.
• Language isolates: Basque, spoken in the Basque regions of Spain and France, is an isolate language, the only one in Europe, and is believed to be unrelated to any other living language; though it is related to the extinct Aquitanian language.
• Mongolic languages exist in the form of Kalmyk, spoken in the South region of Russia.

History

Prehistoric populations

Further information: Genetic history of Europe, Prehistoric Europe, Eurasian nomads, Indo-European expansion, and Neolithic Revolution

Simplified model for the demographic history of Europeans during the Neolithic period and the introduction of agriculture^[6]

The Basques have been found to descend from the population of the late Neolithic or early Bronze Age directly.^[7][8] By contrast, Indo-European groups of Europe (the Centum, Balto-Slavic, and Albanian groups) migrated throughout most of Europe from the Pontic steppe. They are assumed to have developed in situ through admixture of earlier Mesolithic and Neolithic populations with Bronze Age, proto-Indo-Europeans.^[9][10][11] The Finnic peoples are assumed to also be descended from Proto-Uralic populations further to the east, nearer to the Ural Mountains, that had migrated to their historical homelands in Europe by about 3,000 years ago.^[12]

Reconstructed languages of Iron Age Europe include Proto-Celtic, Proto-Italic and Proto-Germanic, all of these Indo-European languages of the centum group, and Proto-Slavic and Proto-Baltic, of the satem group. A group of Tyrrhenian languages appears to have included Etruscan, Rhaetian, Lemnian, and perhaps Camunic. A pre-Roman stage of Proto-Basque can only be reconstructed with great uncertainty.

Regarding the European Bronze Age, the only relatively likely reconstruction is that of Proto-Greek (ca. 2000 BC). A Proto-Italo-Celtic ancestor of both Italic and Celtic (assumed for the Bell beaker period), and a Proto-Balto-Slavic language (assumed for roughly the Corded Ware horizon) has been postulated with less confidence. Old European hydronymy has been taken as indicating an early (Bronze Age) Indo-European predecessor of the later centum languages.

According to geneticist David Reich, based on ancient human genomes that his laboratory sequenced in 2016, Europeans descend from a mixture of four distinct ancestral components.^[13]

Historical populations

Further information: History of Europe

Map of the Roman Empire and barbarian tribes in 125 AD

Iron Age (pre-Great Migrations) populations of Europe known from Greco-Roman historiography, notably Herodotus, Pliny, Ptolemy and Tacitus:

• Aegean: the Greek tribes, Pelasgians, and Anatolians.
• Balkans: the Illyrians (List of ancient tribes in Illyria), Dacians, and Thracians.
• Italian Peninsula: the Camunni, Rhaetians, Lepontii, Adriatic Veneti, Gauls, Ligurians, Etruscans, Italic peoples and Greek and Phoenician colonies in its neighboring Italian islands.
• Western/Central Europe: the Celts (list of peoples of Gaul, List of Celtic tribes), Rhaetians and Swabians, Vistula Veneti, Lugii and Balts.
• Iberian Peninsula and Pyrenees : the Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula (Iberians, Celts, Celtiberians, Lusitani, Basques, Turdetani), of the Pyrenean piedmont (Aquitani) between the Pyrenees and the Atlantic Ocean, and Greek and Phoenician coastal Mediterranean colonies.
• Sardinia and Corsica: the ancient Sardinians and Corsicans (also known as Nuragic and Torrean peoples), comprising the Corsi, Balares, Ilienses tribes and Phoenician colonies.
• British Isles: the Insular Celts.
• Northern Europe: the Baltic Finns, Germanic peoples (list of Germanic peoples) and Normans.
• Sicily: the Italic Sicels and Morgetes, the Sicani, Elymians and Greek and Phoenician colonies.
• Eastern Europe: the Veneti (Early Slavs), Scythians and Sarmatians.
• Armenian Highlands/Anatolia: the Armenians.

Historical immigration

Further information: Scythians, Huns, Turkic expansion, and Early Muslim conquests

The Great Migrations of Late Antiquity

Map showing the distribution of Slavic tribes between the 7th–9th centuries AD

Ethno-linguistic groups that arrived from outside Europe during historical times are:

• Phoenician colonies in the Mediterranean (including regions in Spain, Malta, Sicily, Sardinia, Cyprus and the Aegean), from about 1200 BC to the fall of Carthage after the Third Punic War in 146 BC.
• Assyrian conquest of Cyprus, Southern Caucasus (including parts of modern Armenia, Georgia and Azerbaijan) and Cilicia during the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC).
• Iranian influence: Achaemenid control of Thrace (512–343 BC) and the Bosporan Kingdom, Cimmerians (possible Iranians), Scythians, Sarmatians, Alans, Ossetes, Tats, Talyshs.
• The Jewish diaspora reached Europe in the Roman Empire period, the Jewish community in Italy dating to around AD 70 and records of Jews settling Central Europe (Gaul) from the 5th century (see History of the Jews in Europe).
• The Hunnic Empire (5th century AD), converged with the Barbarian invasions, contributing to the formation of the First Bulgarian Empire.
• The Slavic migrations (6th century AD), and the subsequent split into Eastern Slavs, Western Slavs and Southern Slavs.
• Avar Khaganate (c. 560s–800).
• The Bulgars (or Proto-Bulgarians), a semi-nomadic Turkic people, originally from Central Asia, eventually absorbed by the Slavs.
• The Magyars (Hungarians), a Uralic-speaking people, and the Turkic Pechenegs and Khazars, arrived in Europe in about the 8th century (see Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin).
• The Arabs conquered Cyprus, Crete, Sicily (establishing the Emirate of Sicily in 831, from which they would be expelled in 1224), some places along the coast of southern Italy, Malta, Greek Empire and most of Iberia (founding a polity known as Al-Andalus in 711, ruled also by Berber dynasties of the Almoravides and the Almohads, from whose domain they would be expelled in 1492).
• Exodus of Maghreb Christians.^[14]
• The western Kipchaks known as Cumans entered the lands of present-day Ukraine in the 11th century.
• The Mongol/Tatar invasions (1223–1480), and Ottoman control of the Balkans (1389–1878). These medieval incursions account for the presence of European Turks and Tatars.
• The Romani people arrived during the Late Middle Ages.
• The Mongol Kalmyks arrived in Kalmykia in the 17th century.

History of European ethnography

Europa Regina (Representation of Europe printed by Sebastian Munster (1570)

Ethnographic map of Europe in 1847 by Heinrich Berghaus.

The earliest accounts of European ethnography date from Classical Antiquity. Herodotus described the Scythians and Thraco-Illyrians. Dicaearchus gave a description of Greece itself, besides accounts of western and northern Europe. His work survives only fragmentarily, but was received by Polybius and others.

Roman Empire period authors include Diodorus Siculus, Strabo and Tacitus. Julius Caesar gives an account of the Celtic tribes of Gaul, while Tacitus describes the Germanic tribes of Magna Germania. A number of authors like Diodorus Siculus, Pausanias and Sallust depict the ancient Sardinian and Corsican peoples.

The 4th century Tabula Peutingeriana records the names of numerous peoples and tribes. Ethnographers of Late Antiquity such as Agathias of Myrina, Ammianus Marcellinus, Jordanes, and Theophylact Simocatta give early accounts of the Slavs, the Franks, the Alamanni and the Goths.

Book IX of Isidore's Etymologiae (7th century) treats de linguis, gentibus, regnis, militia, civibus (concerning languages, peoples, realms, war and cities). Ahmad ibn Fadlan in the 10th century gives an account of the Bolghar and the Rus' peoples. William Rubruck, while most notable for his account of the Mongols, in his account of his journey to Asia also gives accounts of the Tatars and the Alans. Saxo Grammaticus and Adam of Bremen give an account of pre-Christian Scandinavia. The Chronicon Slavorum (12th century) gives an account of the northwestern Slavic tribes.

Gottfried Hensel in his 1741 Synopsis Universae Philologiae published one of the earliest ethno-linguistic map of Europe, showing the beginning of the pater noster in the various European languages and scripts.^[15][16] In the 19th century, ethnicity was discussed in terms of scientific racism, and the ethnic groups of Europe were grouped into a number of "races", Mediterranean, Alpine and Nordic, all part of a larger "Caucasian" group.

The beginnings of ethnic geography as an academic subdiscipline lie in the period following World War I, in the context of nationalism, and in the 1930s exploitation for the purposes of fascist and Nazi propaganda, so that it was only in the 1960s that ethnic geography began to thrive as a bona fide academic subdiscipline.^[17]

The origins of modern ethnography are often traced to the work of Bronisław Malinowski, who emphasized the importance of fieldwork.^[18] The emergence of population genetics further undermined the categorisation of Europeans into clearly defined racial groups. A 2007 study on the genetic history of Europe found that the most important genetic differentiation in Europe occurs on a line from the north to the south-east (northern Europe to the Balkans), with another east–west axis of differentiation across Europe, separating the indigenous Basques, Sardinians and Sami from other European populations. Despite these stratifications it noted the unusually high degree of European homogeneity: "there is low apparent diversity in Europe with the entire continent-wide samples only marginally more dispersed than single population samples elsewhere in the world."^[19][20][21]

Minorities

Further information: Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities and European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages

Further information: Multilingual countries and regions of Europe

Gagauz people in Moldova

Sámi family in Lapland of Finland, 1936

The total number of national minority populations in Europe is estimated at 105 million people, or 14% of Europeans.^[1]

The member states of the Council of Europe in 1995 signed the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities. The broad aims of the convention are to ensure that the signatory states respect the rights of national minorities, undertaking to combat discrimination, promote equality, preserve and develop the culture and identity of national minorities, guarantee certain freedoms in relation to access to the media, minority languages and education and encourage the participation of national minorities in public life. The Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities defines a national minority implicitly to include minorities possessing a territorial identity and a distinct cultural heritage. By 2008, 39 member states had signed and ratified the convention, with the notable exception of France.

Indigenous minorities

Definitions of what constitutes Indigenous minority groups in Europe can vary widely. One criterion is the so-called "time element", or how long the original inhabitants of a land occupied it before the arrival of later settlers. As there is no fixed time frame, the answer to the question of what groups constitute Indigenous minorities is often context-dependent. The most extreme view claims that all Europeans are "descendants of previous waves of immigrants", and as such, the countries of Europe are no different from the United States or Canada with regards to who settled where.^[22]

Some groups that claim Indigenous minority status in Europe include the Uralic Nenets, Samoyed, and Komi peoples of northern Russia; Circassians of southern Russia and the North Caucasus; Crimean Tatars, Krymchaks and Crimean Karaites of Crimea (Ukraine); Sámi peoples of northern Norway, Sweden, and Finland and northwestern Russia (in an area also referred to as Sápmi); Galicians of Galicia, Spain; Catalans of Catalonia, Spain and southern France; Basques of Basque Country, Spain and southern France; Gaels of Ireland, the Scottish Highlands, and the Isle of Man; Also the Silesian and Sorbian people of Germany and Poland.^{[citation needed]}

Non-Indigenous minorities

Main article: Immigration to Europe

Further information: Jews and Judaism in Europe, Islam in Europe, Hinduism in Europe, Buddhism in Europe, and Afro-Europeans

Expulsions of Jews in Europe from 1100 to 1600

Many non-European ethnic groups and nationalities have migrated to Europe over the centuries. Some arrived centuries ago. However, the vast majority arrived more recently, mostly in the 20th and 21st centuries. Often, they come from former colonies of the British, Dutch, French, Portuguese and Spanish empires.

• Western Asians
  • Turks: There were 10 million Turks living in Western Europe and the Balkans in 1997 (excluding Northern Cyprus and Turkey).^[23] By 2010, there were up to 15 million Turks living in the European Union (i.e. excluding Turkish communities in Turkey as well as several Balkan countries and post-Soviet countries which are not in the EU).^[24] According to Dr Araks Pashayan, 10 million "Euro-Turks" alone were living in Germany, France, the Netherlands and Belgium in 2012.^[25] In addition, there are 500,000 Turks in the UK (2011 estimate),^[26][27] 500,000 in Austria (2011 estimate)^[27][28] 150,000 in Sweden,^[29] 120,000 in Switzerland,^[30] 70,000 in Denmark (2008 estimate),^[31] as well as growing communities in Italy, Liechtenstein, Finland and Spain. In addition, over one million Turks were living in the Balkans in 2019 (especially in Bulgaria, Greece, Kosovo, North Macedonia and Romania),^[32] and approximately 400,000 Meskhetian Turks were living in the Eastern European regions of the post-Soviet states (i.e. Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Russia and Ukraine) in 2014.^[33]
  • Jews: approximately 2 million, mostly in France, the UK, Russia and Germany. They are descended from the Israelites of the Middle East (Southwest Asia),^{[34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41]} originating from the historical kingdoms of Israel and Judah.^{[42][43][44][45]}
    • Ashkenazi Jews: approximately 1.4 million, mostly in the United Kingdom, France, Russia, Germany and Ukraine. They are believed by scholars to have arrived from Israel via southern Europe^{[46][47][48][49][50]} in the Roman era^[51] and settled in France and Germany towards the end of the first millennium. The Nazi Holocaust wiped out the vast majority during World War II and forced most to flee, with many of them going back to Israel.
    • Bukharan Jews: from Uzbekistan, approximately 320,000, now half in Israel, 12% in the United States (2/3 in the New York metropolitan area), 5% the United Kingdom, and 3% scattered in Austria, Germany, Uzbekistan, Canada, and Russia.
    • Sephardi Jews: approximately 300,000, mostly in France. They arrived via Spain and Portugal in the pre-Roman^[52] and Roman^[53] eras, and were forcibly converted or expelled in the 15th and 16th centuries.
    • Mizrahi Jews: approximately 300,000, mostly in France, via Islamic-majority countries of the Middle East.
    • Italqim: approximately 50,000, mostly in Italy, since the 2nd century BC.
    • Romaniotes: approximately 6,000, mostly in Greece, with communities dating at least from the 1st century AD.
    • Crimean Karaites (Karaim): less than 4,000, mostly in Ukraine, Poland and Lithuania. They arrived in Crimea in the Middle Ages.
  • Assyrians: mostly in Sweden and Germany, as well as in Russia, Armenia, Denmark and Great Britain (see Assyrian diaspora). Assyrians have been present in Eastern Turkey since the Bronze Age (circa 2000 BCE).
  • Kurds: approximately 2.5 million, mostly in the UK, Germany, Sweden and Turkey.
  • Iraqi diaspora: mostly in the UK, Germany and Sweden, and can be of varying ethnic origin, including Arabs, Assyrians, Kurds, Armenians, Shabaks, Mandeans, Turks, Kawliya and Yezidis.
  • Lebanese diaspora: especially in France, Netherlands, Germany, Cyprus and the UK.^[54]
  • Syrian diaspora: Largest number of Syrians live in Germany, the Netherlands and Sweden and can be of varying ethnic origin, including; Arabs, Assyrians, Kurds, Armenians, Arameans, Turks, Mhallami and Yezidis.
• Africans
  • North Africans (North African Arabs, Egyptian Copts, and Berbers): approximately 5 million, mostly in France, Spain, Italy, the Netherlands and Sweden. The bulk of North African migrants are Moroccans, although France also has a large number of Algerians, and others may be from Egypt (including Copts), Libya and Tunisia.
  • Horn Africans (Somalis, Ethiopians, Eritreans, Djiboutians, and the Northern Sudanese): approximately 700,000, mostly in Scandinavia, the UK, the Netherlands, Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Finland, and Italy. Majority arrived to Europe as refugees. Proportionally few live in Italy despite former colonial ties, most live in the Nordic countries.
  • Sub-Saharan Africans (many ethnicities including Afro-Caribbeans, African-Americans, Afro-Latinos and others by descent): approximately 5 million in 2007, mostly in the UK and France, with smaller numbers in the Netherlands, Germany, Italy, Spain, Portugal and elsewhere.^[55]
• Latin Americans: approximately 2.2 million in 2007, mainly in Spain and to a lesser extent Italy and the UK.^[56] See also Latin American Britons (80,000 Latin American born in 2001).^[57]
  • Brazilians: around 280,000 in Portugal, and 50,000 in Italy and Germany each (mainly German-Brazilians).^[58][59]
  • Chilean refugees escaping the Augusto Pinochet regime of the 1970s formed communities in France, Sweden, the UK, former East Germany and the Netherlands.
  • Mexicans: about 21,000 in Spain^[60] and 14,000 in Germany^[61]
  • Venezuelans: around 520,000 mostly in Spain (200,000), Portugal (100,000), France (30,000), Germany (20,000), UK (15,000), Ireland (5,000), Italy (5,000) and the Netherlands (1,000).^{[citation needed]}
• South Asians: approximately 3-4 million, mostly in the UK but reside in smaller numbers in Germany and France.

  

  A Roma makes a complaint to a local magistrate in Hungary.By Sándor Bihari, 1886.

  • Romani (Gypsies): approximately 4 or 10 million (although estimates vary widely), dispersed throughout Europe but with large numbers concentrated in the Balkans area, they are of ancestral South Asian and European descent,^[62] originating from the northern regions of the Indian subcontinent.
  • Indians: approximately 2 million, mostly in the UK, also in Netherlands, Italy, in Germany and France.
  • Pakistanis: approximately 1 million, mostly in the UK, but also in France, Spain, Germany and Italy.
  • Bangladeshi residing in Europe estimated at over 500,000, mostly in the UK.
  • Sri Lankans: approximately 200,000, mainly in the UK.
  • Nepalese: approximately 50,000 in the UK.
  • Afghans, about 100,000 to 200,000, most happen to live in the UK, but Germany and Sweden have also been popular destinations for Afghanistani immigrants since the 1960s.
• Southeast Asians
  • Filipinos: above 1 million, mostly in Italy, the UK, France, Germany, and Spain.
  • Others of multiple nationalities, ca. total 1 million, such as Indonesians in the Netherlands, Thais in the UK and Sweden, Vietnamese in France and former East Germany, and Cambodians in France, together with Burmese, Malaysian, Singaporean, Timorese and Laotian migrants. See also Vietnamese people in the Czech Republic.
• East Asians
  • Chinese: approximately 1.7 million, mostly in France, Russia, the UK, Spain, Italy and the Netherlands.
  • Japanese: mostly in the UK and a sizable community in Düsseldorf, Germany.
  • Koreans: 100,000 estimated (excluding a possible 100,000 more in the Asian section of Russia), mainly in the UK, France and Germany. See also Koryo-saram.
  • Mongolians in Germany.
• North Americans
  • U.S. and Canadian immigrants: American British and Canadian British, Canadiens and Acadians in France, as well as Americans/Canadians of European ancestry residing elsewhere in Europe.
    • African Americans (i.e. African American British) who are Americans of black/African ancestry reside in other countries. In the 1920s, African-American entertainers established a colony in Paris (African American French) and descendants of World War II/Cold War-era black American soldiers stationed in France, Germany and Italy are well known.
• Others
  • European diaspora – Australians, New Zealanders, South Africans (mostly White South Africans of Afrikaner and British descent), and white Namibians, Zimbabweans, Kenyans, Malawians and Zambians mainly in the UK, together with white Angolans and Mozambicans, mainly of Portuguese descent.
  • Pacific Islanders: A small population of Tahitians of Polynesian origin in mainland France, Fijians in the United Kingdom from Fiji and Māori in the United Kingdom of the Māori people of New Zealand, a small number of Tongans and Samoans, also in the United Kingdom.
  • Indigenous peoples of the Americas, a scant few in the European continent of American Indian ancestry (often Latin Americans in Spain, France and the UK; Inuit in Denmark), but most may be children or grandchildren of U.S. soldiers from American Indian tribes by intermarriage with local European women.

European identity

Historical

Further information: History of Western civilization

Personifications of Sclavinia, Germania, Gallia, and Roma, bringing offerings to Otto III; from a gospel book dated 990.

Medieval notions of a relation of the peoples of Europe are expressed in terms of genealogy of mythical founders of the individual groups. The Europeans were considered the descendants of Japheth from early times, corresponding to the division of the known world into three continents, the descendants of Shem peopling Asia and those of Ham peopling Africa. Identification of Europeans as "Japhetites" is also reflected in early suggestions for terming the Indo-European languages "Japhetic".

In this tradition, the Historia Brittonum (9th century) introduces a genealogy of the peoples of the Migration Period based on the sixth-century Frankish Table of Nations as follows,

The first man that dwelt in Europe was Alanus, with his three sons, Hisicion, Armenon, and Neugio. Hisicion had four sons, Francus, Romanus, Alamanus, and Bruttus. Armenon had five sons, Gothus, Valagothus, Cibidus, Burgundus, and Longobardus. Neugio had three sons, Vandalus, Saxo, and Boganus.

From Hisicion arose four nations—the Franks, the Latins, the Germans, and Britons; from Armenon, the Gothi, Valagothi, Cibidi, Burgundi, and Longobardi; from Neugio, the Bogari, Vandali, Saxones, and Tarincgi. The whole of Europe was subdivided into these tribes.^[63]

The text goes then on to list the genealogy of Alanus, connecting him to Japheth via eighteen generations.

European culture

Main articles: Culture of Europe and Western culture

European culture is largely rooted in what is often referred to as its "common cultural heritage".^[64] Due to the great number of perspectives which can be taken on the subject, it is impossible to form a single, all-embracing conception of European culture.^[65] Nonetheless, there are core elements which are generally agreed upon as forming the cultural foundation of modern Europe.^[66] One list of these elements given by K. Bochmann includes:^[67]

• A common cultural and spiritual heritage derived from Greco-Roman antiquity, Christianity, the Renaissance and its Humanism, the political thinking of the Enlightenment, and the French Revolution, and the developments of Modernity, including all types of socialism;^[68]
• A rich and dynamic material culture that has been extended to the other continents as the result of industrialization and colonialism during the "Great Divergence";^[68]
• A specific conception of the individual expressed by the existence of, and respect for, a legality that guarantees human rights and the liberty of the individual;^[68]
• A plurality of states with different political orders, which are condemned to live together in one way or another;^[68]
• Respect for peoples, states and nations outside Europe.^[68]

Berting says that these points fit with "Europe's most positive realisations".^[69] The concept of European culture is generally linked to the classical definition of the Western world. In this definition, Western culture is the set of literary, scientific, political, artistic and philosophical principles which set it apart from other civilizations. Much of this set of traditions and knowledge is collected in the Western canon.^[70] The term has come to apply to countries whose history has been strongly marked by European immigration or settlement during the 18th and 19th centuries, such as the Americas, and Australasia, and is not restricted to Europe.

Religion

Main articles: Religion in Europe and Christendom

Further information: Christianity in Europe, Islam in Europe, Hinduism in Europe, and Buddhism in Europe

Eurobarometer Poll 2005 chart results

Since the High Middle Ages, most of Europe has been dominated by Christianity. There are three major denominations: Roman Catholic, Protestant and Eastern Orthodox, with Protestantism restricted mostly to Northern Europe, and Orthodoxy to East and South Slavic regions, Romania, Moldova, Greece, and Georgia. The Armenian Apostolic Church, part of the Oriental Church, is also in Europe – another branch of Christianity (world's oldest National Church). Catholicism, while typically centered in Western Europe, also has a very significant following in Central Europe (especially among the Germanic, Western Slavic and Hungarian peoples/regions) as well as in Ireland (with some in Great Britain).

Christianity has been the dominant religion shaping European culture for at least the last 1700 years.^{[71][72][73][74][75]} Modern philosophical thought has very much been influenced by Christian philosophers such as St Thomas Aquinas and Erasmus, and throughout most of its history, Europe has been nearly equivalent to Christian culture.^[76] The Christian culture was the predominant force in western civilization, guiding the course of philosophy, art, and science.^[77][78] The notion of "Europe" and the "Western World" has been intimately connected with the concept of "Christianity and Christendom" many even attribute Christianity for being the link that created a unified European identity.^[79]

Christianity is still the largest religion in Europe; according to a 2011 survey, 76.2% of Europeans considered themselves Christians.^[80][81] Also according to a study on Religiosity in the European Union in 2012, by Eurobarometer, Christianity is the largest religion in the European Union, accounting for 72% of the EU's population.^[82] As of 2010 Catholics were the largest Christian group in Europe, accounting for more than 48% of European Christians. The second-largest Christian group in Europe were the Orthodox, who made up 32% of European Christians. About 19% of European Christians were part of the Protestant tradition.^[83] Russia is the largest Christian country in Europe by population, followed by Germany and Italy.^[83] According to Scholars, in 2017, Europe's population was 77.8% Christian (up from 74.9% 1970),^[84][85] these changes were largely result of the collapse of Communism and switching to Christianity in the former Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc countries.^[84]

Islam has some tradition in the Balkans and the Caucasus due to conquest and colonization from the Ottoman Empire in the 16th to 19th centuries, as well as earlier though discontinued long-term presence in much of Iberia as well as Sicily. Muslims account for the majority of the populations in Albania, Azerbaijan, Kosovo, Northern Cyprus (controlled by Turks), and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Significant minorities are present in the rest of Europe. Russia also has one of the largest Muslim communities in Europe, including the Tatars of the Middle Volga and multiple groups in the Caucasus, including Chechens, Avars, Ingush and others. With 20th-century migrations, Muslims in Western Europe have become a noticeable minority. According to the Pew Forum, the total number of Muslims in Europe in 2010 was about 44 million (6%),^[86][87] while the total number of Muslims in the European Union in 2007 was about 16 million (3.2%).^[88]

Judaism has a long history in Europe, but is a small minority religion, with France (1%) the only European country with a Jewish population in excess of 0.5%. The Jewish population of Europe is composed primarily of two groups, the Ashkenazi and the Sephardi. Ancestors of Ashkenazi Jews likely migrated to Central Europe at least as early as the 8th century, while Sephardi Jews established themselves in Spain and Portugal at least one thousand years before that. Jews originated in the Levant where they resided for thousands of years until the 2nd century AD, when they spread around the Mediterranean and into Europe, although small communities were known to exist in Greece as well as the Balkans since at least the 1st century BC. Jewish history was notably affected by the Holocaust and emigration (including Aliyah, as well as emigration to America) in the 20th century. The Jewish population of Europe in 2010 was estimated to be approximately 1.4 million (0.2% of European population) or 10% of the world's Jewish population.^[89] In the 21st century, France has the largest Jewish population in Europe,^[89][90] followed by the United Kingdom, Germany, Russia and Ukraine.^[90]

In modern times, significant secularization since the 20th century, notably in secularist France, Estonia and the Czech Republic. Currently, distribution of theism in Europe is very heterogeneous, with more than 95% in Poland, and less than 20% in the Czech Republic and Estonia. The 2005 Eurobarometer poll^[91] found that 52% of EU citizens believe in God. According to a Pew Research Center Survey in 2012 the Religiously Unaffiliated (Atheists and Agnostics) make up about 18.2% of the European population in 2010.^[92] According to the same Survey the Religiously Unaffiliated make up the majority of the population in only two European countries: Czech Republic (76%) and Estonia (60%).^[92]

Pan-European identity

Main article: Pan-European identity

"Pan-European identity" or "Europatriotism" is an emerging sense of personal identification with Europe, or the European Union as a result of the gradual process of European integration taking place over the last quarter of the 20th century, and especially in the period after the end of the Cold War, since the 1990s. The foundation of the OSCE following the 1990s Paris Charter has facilitated this process on a political level during the 1990s and 2000s.

From the later 20th century, 'Europe' has come to be widely used as a synonym for the European Union even though there are millions of people living on the European continent in non-EU member states. The prefix pan implies that the identity applies throughout Europe, and especially in an EU context, and 'pan-European' is often contrasted with national identity.^[93]

European ethnic groups by sovereign state

See also: List of countries by ethnic groups

Country	Majority	%	Regional majorities	Minorities[a]
Albania	Albanians	97%[94][95]		Greeks ≈3%,[96] and other 2% (Aromanians, Romani, Macedonians, Montenegrins, Bulgarians, Bosniaks, Jews and Serbs).[97]
Armenia[b]	Armenians[c]	98.1%		Russians, Yazidis, Assyrians, Kurds, Greeks, Jews, Loms and Ukrainians.
Azerbaijan[d]	Azerbaijanis[c]	91.6%	Lezgin 2%, Armenians 1.35%	Russians, Tats, Talysh, Kurds, Avars, Turks, Tatars, Ukrainians, and Poles.
Belarus	Belarusians	83.7%		Russians 8.3%, Poles 3.1%, Ukrainians 1.7%, and other 3.2%. (2009 census)
Belgium	Flemings	58%	Walloons 31%, Germans 1%	mixed or other (i.e. Luxembourgers, Eastern Europeans or Southern Europeans, Africans and Asians, and Latin Americans) 10%.
Bosnia and Herzegovina	Bosniaks	50.11%	Serbs 30.78%, Croats 15.43%	Albanians, Macedonians, Roma and Turks (2013 census)
Bulgaria	Bulgarians	84%	Turks 8.8%	Roma 5%, Others 2% (including Russian, Armenian, Crimean Tatars, Sarakatsani, and "Vlach" [Romanians and Aromanians]). (2001 census)[98]
Croatia	Croats	91.6%		Serbs 3.2%, other 5.2% (including Bosniaks, Roma, Albanians, Italians, Hungarians and others). (2021 census)[99]
Czech Republic	Czechs	90.4%	Moravians 3.7%	Slovaks 1.9%, and other 4%. (including Bulgarians, Croats, Germans, Poles, Roma and Vietnamese). (2001 census)
Denmark	Danes	90%[100]	Faroese, Greenlanders	other Scandinavians, Germans, Frisians, other European, Indigenous Greenlandic people and others.
Estonia	Estonians	68.8%		Russians 24.2% , Ukrainians 2.0%, Belarusians 0.8%, Finns 0.6%.
Finland	Finns	93.4%	Finland-Swedes 5.6%, Sami 0.1%	Russians 1.1%, Estonians 0.7%, Romani 0.1% and Latvians 0.5%. (2019) also Somalis, Germans, Macedonians and Iranians
Georgia[d][101]	Georgians[c]	86.8%		Russians, Azerbaijanis, Kurds, Tats, Armenians, Ukrainians, Greeks, Ossetians
Greece	Greeks	93%	includes linguistic minorities 3%	Albanians 4% and other (i.e. Aromanians, Megleno-Romanians, Cretan Turks and Macedonian/Greek Slavic 3%. (2001 census)[e]
Hungary	Hungarians	92.3%		Romani 1.9%, Germans 1.2%, other (i.e. Croats, Romanians, Bulgarians, Turks and Rusyns) or unknown 4.6%. (2001 census)
Iceland	Icelanders	91%		other (non-native/immigrants – mainly Polish, Lithuanians, Danes, Germans and Latvians) 9%.[102]
Ireland	Irish	87.4%	Ulster Scots and Irish Travellers 1.6%	other white (large numbers of Lithuanian, Latvian, Polish and Ukrainian migration) 7.5%, Asian 1.3%, black 1.1%, mixed 1.1%. (2006 census)
Italy	Italians	91.7%	Southtyroleans in South Tyrol (Bavarian and Ladin People), Franco-Provençal in Aosta Valley and Valmaggiore [it] (northwestern Apulia)	Historical ethno-linguistic minorities (Sardinian, French, Occitan, Arpitan, Croatian, Albanian, Catalan, Austrian, Greek, Ladin, Friulian, Slovene and Roma minorities),[103][104] regional language native speakers (Gallo-Italic, Venetian, Neapolitan, Sicilian),[105] other Europeans (mostly Romanians, Albanians, Ukrainians and Polish) 4%, North Africans 1% and others (i.e. Chinese, Filipino, Indian, Black African and Latin American) 2.5%.[106][107][108][109]
Kazakhstan[d]	Kazakhs[c]	63.1%	Russians 23.7%	Uzbeks, Ukrainians, Uyghurs, Tatars, Kyrgyz, Tajiks, Germans, Poles and Koreans.
Kosovo[f]	Albanians	92%	Serbs 4%	other 4% (Bosniaks, Gorani, Croats, Jews, Romani, Turks and Ashkali and Egyptians).
Latvia	Latvians	62.1%[110]	Livonians 0.1%	Russians 26.9%, Belarusian 3.3%, Ukrainian 2.2%, Polish 2.2%, Lithuanian 1.2%, and other 2.0%. (2011)
Lithuania	Lithuanians	84.61%	Poles 6.53%	Russians 5.02%, Belarusians 1.00%, Ukrainians 0.50%, other 2.34% (2021 census)
Malta	Maltese	95.3%[111]
Moldova	Moldovans[g]	75.1%	Gagauzs 4.6%, Bulgarians 1.9%	Romanians[g] 7%, Ukrainians 6.6%, Russians 4.1%, and other 0.8% (2014 census).
Montenegro	Montenegrins	44.98%	Serbs 28.73%	Bosniaks 8.65%, Albanians 4.91%, and other (Croats, Turks, Greeks, Romani and Macedonians) 12,73%. (2011 census)
North Macedonia	Macedonians	64%	Albanians 25.2%, Turks 4%	Romani 2.7%, Serbs 1.8%, and other (i.e. Aromanians, Greeks, Bulgarians, Megleno-Romanians, Gorani, and Croats) 2.2%. (2002 census)
Norway	Norwegians[h]	85–87%	Sami 0.7%[i][112] Kvens 0.2%[113]	Poles 2.10%. A variety of other ethnicities with background from 219 countries that together make up approximately 15% (Swedes, Danes, Somalis, Syrians, Kurds, Vietnamese, Germans, Lithuanians, Russians and different South Asian ethnicities) (2020).[114]
Poland	Poles	97%		Germans 0.4%, Belarusians 0.1%, Ukrainians 0.1%, other and unspecified (i.e. Silesians, Kashubians, Masurians and Prussian Lithuanians) 2.7%, and about 5,000 Polish Jews reported to reside in the country. (2002 census)
Portugal	Portuguese	95%	Portuguese Mirandese speakers 15.000~ (i.e. Mirandese-language speakers)	other 5% – other Europeans (British, German, French, Spanish, Romanians, Bulgarians, Hungarians, Croats, Ukrainians, Moldavians, Russians, Serbs, Kosovars and Albanians); Africans from Portuguese-speaking Africa, Brazilians, Chinese, Indians, Jews, Portuguese Gypsies and Latin Americans.
Romania	Romanians	83.4%	Hungarians 6.1%	Romani 3.0%, Germans 0.2%, Ukrainians 0.2%, Turks 0.2%, Russians 0.1% (2011 census)
[d] Russia	Russians	81%	Tatars 3.9%, Chuvashes 1%, Chechens 1%, Ossetians 0.4%, Kabardin 0.4%, Ingushes 0.3%, Kalmyks 0.1%	Ukrainians 1.4%, Bashkir 1.2%, Armenians 0.9%, Avars 0.7%, Mordvins 0.5% and other. (2010 census, includes Asian Russia, excludes unspecified people (3.94% of population)).[115][116]
Serbia[j]	Serbs	83%		Hungarians 3.9%, Romani 1.4%, Yugoslavs 1.1%, Bosniaks 1.8%, Montenegrin 0.9%, and other 8%. i.e. Macedonians, Slovaks, Romanians, Croats, Ruthenes, Bulgarians, Germans, Albanians, and other (2002 census).
Slovakia	Slovaks	86%	Hungarians 9.7%	Romani 1.7%, Rusyn/Ukrainian 1%, other and unspecified 1.8% (2001 census)
Slovenia	Slovenes	83.1%		Serbs 2%, Croats 1.8%, Bosniaks 1.1%, other (Dalmatian Italians, ethnic Germans, Hungarians and Romanians) and/or unspecified 12% (2002 census).
Sweden	Swedes	88%	Finns (Tornedalians)	foreign-born or first-generation immigrants: Finns (Sweden-Finns), Yugoslavs (Serbs, Croats, and Bosniaks), Danes, Norwegians, Russians, Syrians, Lebanese, Syriacs, Greeks, Turks, Iranians, Iraqis, Pakistanis, Thais, Koreans, and Chileans.[117][118]
Switzerland	Swiss Germans	65%[119]	French 18%, Italians 10%[119]	Romansh people in Grisons
Turkey[d]	Turks[c]	75%	Kurds 18%	Other 7%: Albanians, Syrians, Armenians (including Hemshin), Assyrians, Azerbaijanis, Bosniaks, Bulgarians (including Pomaks), Chechens, Circassians, Crimean Tatars, Georgians (including Laz), Greeks, Romani, Ossetians and Zaza.
Ukraine	Ukrainians	77.8%	Russians 17.3%	Belarusians 0.6%, Moldovans[g] 0.5%, Crimean Tatars 0.5%, Bulgarians 0.4%, Hungarians 0.3%, Romanians 0.3%, Poles 0.3%, Jews 0.2%, Armenians 0.1%, Urums 0.1% and other 1.8% (2001 census).

See also

• European diaspora
• Central Asians
• Demographics of Europe
• Emigration from Europe
  • European American
  • White Latin American
• Ethnic groups in the Middle East
• Eurolinguistics
• Federal Union of European Nationalities
• Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities
• Genetic history of Europe
  • Y-DNA haplogroups in populations of Europe
• Immigration to Europe
  • Afro-Europeans
  • Turks in Europe
• Languages of Europe
• List of ethnic groups
• Nomadic peoples of Europe
• Peoples of the Caucasus
• White people

Notes

1. Percentages from the CIA Factbook unless indicated otherwise.
2. Located in Asia, but sometimes considered part of Europe because of cultural ties, see boundaries of Europe.
3. Non-European ethnic group
4. Transcontinental country, see boundaries of Europe.
5. Percents represent citizenship, since Greece does not collect data on ethnicity.
6. Partially recognized state, see international recognition of Kosovo.
7. There is an ongoing controversy in Moldova over whether Moldovans' self-identification constitute a subgroup of Romanians or a separate ethnic group.
8. There is no legal or generally accepted definitions of who is of Norwegian ethnicity in Norway. 87% of population have at least one parent who is born in Norway^{[citation needed]}.
9. In Norway, there is no clear legal definition of who is Sami. Therefore, exact numbers are not possible.
10. Excluding Kosovo

References

1. Christoph Pan, Beate Sibylle Pfeil (2002), Minderheitenrechte in Europa. Handbuch der europäischen Volksgruppen, Braumüller, ISBN 3700314221 (Google Books, snippet view). Also 2006 reprint by Springer (Amazon, no preview) ISBN 3211353070. Pan, Christoph; Pfeil, Beate Sibylle (2002). Minderheitenrechte in Europa. Braumüller. ISBN 9783700314226. Archived from the original on 5 December 2015. Retrieved 14 August 2015.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
2. "Russische Federatie – feiten en cijfers". Encarta Encyclopedie Winkler Prins (in Dutch). Microsoft Corporation/Het Spectrum. 1993–2002.
3. Pan and Pfeil (2004), "Problems with Terminology", pp. xvii–xx.
4. "Non-EU citizens make up 5.3% of the EU population". Eurostat. Retrieved 16 February 2024.
5. Total population of Yiddish estimated at 1.5 million as of 1991, of which c. 40% in Ukraine. Yiddish at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required), Eastern Yiddish at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required), Western Yiddish at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
6. Bustamante, Carlos D.; Cucca, Francesco (8 May 2014). "Population Genomic Analysis of Ancient and Modern Genomes Yields New Insights into the Genetic Ancestry of the Tyrolean Iceman and the Genetic Structure of Europe". PLOS Genetics. 10 (5): e1004353. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1004353. ISSN 1553-7404. PMC 4014435. PMID 24809476.
7. Wilson, J. F. (2001). "Genetic evidence for different male and female roles during cultural transitions in the British Isles". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 98 (9): 5078–5083. Bibcode:2001PNAS...98.5078W. doi:10.1073/pnas.071036898. PMC 33166. PMID 11287634.
8. Günther, Torsten; et al. (2015). "Ancient genomes link early farmers from Atapuerca in Spain to modern-day Basques". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 112 (38): 11917–11922. Bibcode:2015PNAS..11211917G. doi:10.1073/pnas.1509851112. PMC 4586848. PMID 26351665.
9. Reich, David; Alt, Kurt Werner; Cooper, Alan; Anthony, David; Brown, Dorcas; Krause, Johannes; Meyer, Matthias; Wahl, Joachim; Szécsényi-Nagy, Anna; Roth, Christina; Guerra, Manuel A. Rojo; Risch, Roberto; Pichler, Sandra L.; Nicklisch, Nicole; Moiseyev, Vayacheslav; Mochalov, Oleg; Meller, Harald; Kuznetsov, Pavel; Kunst, Michael; Khokhlov, Aleksandr; Khartanovich, Valery; Hallgren, Fredrik; Pena, Rafael Garrido; Friederich, Susanne; Francken, Michael; Economou, Christos; Bánffy, Eszter; Mittnik, Alissa; Fu, Qiaomei; Stewardson, Kristin; Harney, Eadaoin; Nordenfelt, Susanne; Brandt, Guido; Llamas, Bastien; Mallick, Swapan; Rohland, Nadin; Patterson, Nick; Lazaridis, Iosif; Haak, Wolfgang (10 February 2015). "Massive migration from the steppe is a source for Indo-European languages in Europe". bioRxiv. 522 (7555): 207–211. arXiv:1502.02783. Bibcode:2015Natur.522..207H. bioRxiv 10.1101/013433. doi:10.1038/NATURE14317. PMC 5048219. PMID 25731166.
10. Allentoft, Morten E.; Sikora, Martin; Sjögren, Karl-Göran; Rasmussen, Simon; Rasmussen, Morten; Stenderup, Jesper; Damgaard, Peter B.; Schroeder, Hannes; Ahlström, Torbjörn; Vinner, Lasse; Malaspinas, Anna-Sapfo; Margaryan, Ashot; Higham, Tom; Chivall, David; Lynnerup, Niels; Harvig, Lise; Baron, Justyna; Casa, Philippe Della; Dąbrowski, Paweł; Duffy, Paul R.; Ebel, Alexander V.; Epimakhov, Andrey; Frei, Karin; Furmanek, Mirosław; Gralak, Tomasz; Gromov, Andrey; Gronkiewicz, Stanisław; Grupe, Gisela; Hajdu, Tamás; et al. (7 June 2015). "Population genomics of Bronze Age Eurasia". Nature. 522 (7555): 167–172. Bibcode:2015Natur.522..167A. doi:10.1038/nature14507. PMID 26062507. S2CID 4399103.
11. Reich, David; Patterson, Nick; Haak, Wolfgang; Alt, Kurt W.; Cooper, Alan; Fox, Carles Lalueza; Brown, Dorcas; Anthony, David; Krause, Johannes; Guerra, Manuel A. Rojo; Meller, Harald; Pickrell, Joseph; Llamas, Bastien; Mallick, Swapan; Rohland, Nadin; Lazaridis, Iosif; Mathieson, Iain (14 March 2015). "Eight thousand years of natural selection in Europe". bioRxiv: 016477. doi:10.1101/016477 – via www.biorxiv.org.
12. Richard, Lewis (2005). Finland, Cultural Lone Wolf. Intercultural Press. ISBN 978-1-931930-18-5.Laitinen, Virpi; Päivi Lahermo (24 August 2001). "Y-Chromosomal Diversity Suggests that Baltic Males Share Common Finno-Ugric-Speaking Forefathers" (PDF). Human Heredity. 53 (2). Department of Genetics, University of Turku, Turku, Finnish Genome Center, University of Helsinki: 68–78. doi:10.1159/000057985. PMID 12037406. S2CID 29863635. Retrieved 8 October 2008.
13. Iosif Lazaridis; et al. (2016). "Genomic insights into the origin of farming in the ancient Near East" (PDF). Nature. 536 (7617): 419–424. Bibcode:2016Natur.536..419L. doi:10.1038/nature19310. PMC 5003663. PMID 27459054. Retrieved 18 April 2018. bottom-left: Western Hunter Gatherers (WHG), top-left: Eastern Hunter Gatherers (EHG), bottom-right: Neolithic Levant and Natufians, top-right: Neolithic Iran. This suggests the hypothesis that diverse ancient West Eurasians can be modeled as mixtures of as few as four streams of ancestry related to these population
14. Phillips, Fr Andrew. "The Last Christians Of North-West Africa: Some Lessons For Orthodox Today". Orthodoxengland.org.uk. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
15. Hensel, Gottfried (12 December 2017). "Synopsis vniversæ philologiæ in qua miranda vnitas et harmonia lingvarvm: Totivs orbis terrarvm occvlta, e literarvm, syllabarvm, vocvmqve natvra & recessibvs ervitvr; cum grammatica ... mappisqve geographico-polyglottis ..." In commissis apvd heredes Homannianos. Retrieved 12 December 2017 – via Google Books.
16. Karl Friedrich Vollgraff, Erster Versuch einer Begründung sowohl der allgemeinen Ethnologie durch die Anthropologie, wie auch der Staats und Rechts-philosophie durch die Ethnologie oder Nationalität der Völker (1851), p. 257.
17. A. Kumar, Encyclopaedia of Teaching of Geography (2002), p. 74 ff.; the tripartite subdivision of "Caucasians" into Nordic, Alpine and Mediterranean groups persisted among some scientists into the 1960s, notably in Carleton Coon's book The Origin of Races (1962).
18. Andrew Barry, Political Machines (2001), p. 56
19. Measuring European Population Stratification using Microarray Genotype Data, Sitesled.com Archived 18 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine
20. "DNA heritage". Archived from the original on 18 February 2004. Retrieved 20 July 2007.
21. Dupanloup, Isabelle; Giorgio Bertorelle; Lounès Chikhi; Guido Barbujani (2004). "Estimating the Impact of Prehistoric Admixture on the Genome of Europeans". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 21 (7): 1361–72. doi:10.1093/molbev/msh135. PMID 15044595.
22. Orgad, Liav; Koopmans, Ruud (24 November 2022). Majorities, Minorities, and the Future of Nationhood. Cambridge University Press. p. 21. ISBN 978-1-009-23333-0. Retrieved 10 February 2023.
23. Bayram, Servet; Seels, Barbara (1997), "The Utilization of Instructional Technology in Turkey", Educational Technology Research and Development, 45 (1), Springer: 112, doi:10.1007/BF02299617, S2CID 62176630, There are about 10 million Turks living in the Balkan area of southeastern Europe and in western Europe at present.
24. 52% of Europeans say no to Turkey's EU membership, Aysor, 2010, retrieved 7 November 2020, This is not all of a sudden, says expert at the Center for Ethnic and Political Science Studies, Boris Kharkovsky. "These days, up to 15 million Turks live in the EU countries...
25. Pashayan, Araks (2012), "Integration of Muslims in Europe and the Gülen", in Weller, Paul; Ihsan, Yilmaz (eds.), European Muslims, Civility and Public Life: Perspectives On and From the Gülen Movement, Continuum International Publishing Group, ISBN 978-1-4411-0207-2, There are around 10 million Euro-Turks living in the European Union countries of Germany, France, the Netherlands and Belgium.
26. Home Affairs Committee (2011). "Implications for the Justice and Home Affairs area of the accession of Turkey to the European Union" (PDF). The Stationery Office. p. Ev 34.
27. The Guardian (1 August 2011). "UK immigration analysis needed on Turkish legal migration, say MPs". Retrieved 1 August 2011. The Home Office says that there are about 150,000 Turkish nationals living in Britain at present, with about 500,000 people of Turkish origin living in the country altogether. But Germany, Austria, the Netherlands and France all have larger Turkish communities which are more likely to attract a new wave of legal migration.
28. Mölzer, Andreas. "In Österreich leben geschätzte 500.000 Türken, aber kaum mehr als 10–12.000 Slowenen". Archived from the original on 2012-07-22. Retrieved 30 October 2020.
29. Sayıner, Arda (2018). "Ankara Historia". Daily Sabah. Having said that, a few thousand Swedish citizens currently live in Turkey and the number went up 60 percent in 2017. According to Hyden, Turkish hospitality played an important part behind this increase. She said around 150,000 Turkish citizens live in Sweden, which has a total population of 10 million.
30. Türken in der Schweiz – Zahlen und Fakten zur Diaspora vom Bosporus, Aargauer Zeitung, 2017, archived from the original on 7 November 2020, retrieved 1 November 2020
31. Larsen, Nick Aagaard (2008), Tyrkisk afstand fra Islamisk Trossamfund, Danish Broadcasting Corporation, retrieved 1 November 2020, Ud af cirka 200.000 muslimer i Danmark har 70.000 tyrkiske rødder, og de udgør dermed langt den største muslimske indvandrergruppe.
32. Dursun-Özkanca, Oya (2019), Turkey–West Relations: The Politics of Intra-alliance Opposition, Cambridge University Press, p. 40, ISBN 978-1108488624, One-fifth of the Turkish population is estimated to have Balkan origins. Additionally, more than one million Turks live in Balkan countries, constituting a bridge between these countries and Turkey.
33. Al Jazeera (2014). "Ahıska Türklerinin 70 yıllık sürgünü". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 2016-07-05.
34. В России проживает около миллиона иудеев [About 1 million Jews live in Russia]. interfax-religion.ru (in Russian). 26 February 2015. Archived from the original on 27 December 2019. Retrieved 11 June 2020.
35. Tubb 1998, pp. 13–14
36. Ann E. Killebrew, Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity. An Archaeological Study of Egyptians, Canaanites, Philistines and Early Israel 1300-1100 B.C.E. (Archaeology and Biblical Studies), Society of Biblical Literature, 2005
37. Schama, Simon (18 March 2014). The Story of the Jews: Finding the Words 1000 BC-1492 AD. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-233944-7.
38. • "In the broader sense of the term, a Jew is any person belonging to the worldwide group that constitutes, through descent or conversion, a continuation of the ancient Jewish people, who were themselves descendants of the Hebrews of the Old Testament."
    • "The Jewish people as a whole, initially called Hebrews (ʿIvrim), were known as Israelites (Yisreʾelim) from the time of their entrance into the Holy Land to the end of the Babylonian Exile (538 BC)."

    Jew at Encyclopædia Britannica
39. "Israelite, in the broadest sense, a Jew, or a descendant of the Jewish patriarch Jacob" Israelite at Encyclopædia Britannica
40. "Hebrew, any member of an ancient northern Semitic people that were the ancestors of the Jews." Hebrew (People) at Encyclopædia Britannica
41. Ostrer, Harry (19 April 2012). Legacy: A Genetic History of the Jewish People. Oxford University Press, USA. ISBN 978-0-19-970205-3.
42. Brenner, Michael (13 June 2010). A Short History of the Jews. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-14351-4.
43. Scheindlin, Raymond P. (1998). A Short History of the Jewish People: From Legendary Times to Modern Statehood. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513941-9.
44. Adams, Hannah (1840). The History of the Jews: From the Destruction of Jerusalem to the Present Time. Sold at the London Society House and by Duncan and Malcom, and Wertheim.
45. Diamond, Jared (1993). "Who are the Jews?" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 8 November 2010. Natural History 102:11 (November 1993): 12–19.
46. Hammer, M. F.; Redd, A. J.; Wood, E. T.; Bonner, M. R.; Jarjanazi, H.; Karafet, T.; Santachiara-Benerecetti, S.; Oppenheim, A.; Jobling, M. A.; Jenkins, T.; Ostrer, H.; Bonne-Tamir, B. (2000). "Jewish and Middle Eastern non-Jewish populations share a common pool of Y-chromosome biallelic haplotypes". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 97 (12): 6769–6774. Bibcode:2000PNAS...97.6769H. doi:10.1073/pnas.100115997. PMC 18733. PMID 10801975.
47. Wade, Nicholas (9 May 2000). "Y Chromosome Bears Witness to Story of the Jewish Diaspora". The New York Times. Retrieved 10 October 2012.
48. Behar, Doron M.; Metspalu, Mait; Baran, Yael; Kopelman, Naama M.; Yunusbayev, Bayazit; Gladstein, Ariella; Tzur, Shay; Sahakyan, Havhannes; Bahmanimehr, Ardeshir; Yepiskoposyan, Levon; Tambets, Kristiina; Khusnutdinova, Elza K.; Kusniarevich, Aljona; Balanovsky, Oleg; Balanovsky, Elena; Kovacevic, Lejla; Marjanovic, Damir; Mihailov, Evelin; Kouvatsi, Anastasia; Traintaphyllidis, Costas; King, Roy J.; Semino, Ornella; Torroni, Antonio; Hammer, Michael F.; Metspalu, Ene; Skorecki, Karl; Rosset, Saharon; Halperin, Eran; Villems, Richard; Rosenberg, Noah A. (2013). "No Evidence from Genome-Wide Data of a Khazar Origin for the Ashkenazi Jews". Human Biology Open Access Pre-Prints (Paper 41). Archived from the original on 11 October 2014. Retrieved 11 June 2020.
49. Costa, Marta D.; Pereira, Joana B.; Pala, Maria; Fernandes, Verónica; Olivieri, Anna; Achilli, Alessandro; Perego, Ugo A.; Rychkov, Sergei; Naumova, Oksana; Hatina, Jiři; Woodward, Scott R.; Eng, Ken Khong; Macaulay, Vincent; Carr, Martin; Soares, Pedro; Pereira, Luísa; Richards, Martin B. (8 October 2013). "A substantial prehistoric European ancestry amongst Ashkenazi maternal lineages". Nature Communications. 4: 2543. Bibcode:2013NatCo...4.2543C. doi:10.1038/ncomms3543. PMC 3806353. PMID 24104924.
50. Lazaridis, Iosif; Patterson, Nick; Mittnik, Alissa; Renaud, Gabriel; Mallick, Swapan; Kirsanow, Karola; Sudmant, Peter H; Schraiber, Joshua G; Castellano, Sergi; Lipson, Mark; Berger, Bonnie; Economou, Christos; Bollongino, Ruth; Fu, Qiaomei; Bos, Kirsten I; Nordenfelt, Susanne; Li, Heng; Cesare de Filippo; Prüfer, Kay; Sawyer, Susanna; Posth, Cosimo; Haak, Wolfgang; Hallgren, Fredrik; Fornander, Elin; Rohland, Nadin; Delsate, Dominique; Francken, Michael; Guinet, Jean-Michel; Wahl, Joachim; et al. (2013). "Ancient human genomes suggest three ancestral populations for present-day Europeans". Nature. 513 (7518): 409–13. arXiv:1312.6639. Bibcode:2014Natur.513..409L. doi:10.1038/nature13673. PMC 4170574. PMID 25230663.
51. Gregory Cochran, Henry Harpending, The 10,000 Year Explosion: How Civilization Accelerated Human Evolution, Basic Books, 2009 pp. 195–196.
52. Moses ben Machir, in Seder Ha-Yom, p. 15a, Venice 1605 (Hebrew)
53. Josephus Flavius, Antiquities, xi.v.2
54. "Petition for expatriate voting officially launched". The Daily Star. 14 July 2012.
55. Sachs, Susan (5 February 2007). "France's blacks stand up to be counted". The Globe and Mail. Archived from the original on 11 June 2020. Retrieved 11 June 2020.
56. "Latin American Immigration to Southern Europe". Migrationinformation.org. 28 June 2007. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
57. Born Abroad – Countries of birth, BBC News
58. "Comunidade Brasileira no Exterior - Estimativas referentes ao ano de 2020" (PDF) (in Portuguese). Ministry of External Relations. 14 September 2020. Retrieved 24 February 2021.
59. "Brasiliani in Italia - statistiche e distribuzione per regione". Tuttitalia.it (in Italian). Retrieved 2022-06-07.
60. "Población extranjera por Nacionalidad, comunidades, Sexo y Año". INE.
61. "Archived copy". www.destatis.de. Archived from the original on 16 November 2010. Retrieved 11 January 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
62. Kalaydjieva, L; Gresham, D; Calafell, F (2001). "Genetic studies of the Roma (Gypsies): a review". BMC Med. Genet. 2: 5. doi:10.1186/1471-2350-2-5. PMC 31389. PMID 11299048.
63. ab Hisitione autem ortae sunt quattuor gentes Franci, Latini, Albani et Britti. ab Armenone autem quinque: Gothi, Valagothi, Gebidi, Burgundi, Longobardi. a Neguio vero quattuor Boguarii, Vandali, Saxones et Turingi. trans. J. A. Giles. London: Henry G. Bohn, 1848. Archived 2009-07-27 at the Wayback Machine
64. Cf. Berting (2006:51).
65. Cederman (2001:2) remarks: "Given the absence of an explicit legal definition and the plethora of competing identities, it is indeed hard to avoid the conclusion that Europe is an essentially contested concept." Cf. also Davies (1996:15); Berting (2006:51).
66. Cf. Jordan-Bychkov (2008:13), Davies (1996:15), Berting (2006:51–56).
67. K. Bochmann (1990) L'idée d'Europe jusqu'au XXè siècle, quoted in Berting (2006:52). Cf. Davies (1996:15): "No two lists of the main constituents of European civilization would ever coincide. But many items have always featured prominently: from the roots of the Christian world in Greece, Rome and Judaism to modern phenomena such as the Enlightenment, modernization, romanticism, nationalism, liberalism, imperialism, totalitarianism."
68. Berting 2006, p. 52
69. Berting 2006, p. 51
70. Duran (1995:81)
71. Religions in Global Society – Page 146, Peter Beyer – 2006
72. Cambridge University Historical Series, An Essay on Western Civilization in Its Economic Aspects, p.40: Hebraism, like Hellenism, has been an all-important factor in the development of Western Civilization; Judaism, as the precursor of Christianity, has indirectly had had much to do with shaping the ideals and morality of western nations since the christian era.
73. Caltron J.H Hayas, Christianity and Western Civilization (1953), Stanford University Press, p.2: That certain distinctive features of our Western civilization — the civilization of western Europe and of America— have been shaped chiefly by Judaeo – Graeco – Christianity, Catholic and Protestant.
74. Horst Hutter, University of New York, Shaping the Future: Nietzsche's New Regime of the Soul And Its Ascetic Practices (2004), p.111:three mighty founders of Western culture, namely Socrates, Jesus, and Plato.
75. Fred Reinhard Dallmayr, Dialogue Among Civilizations: Some Exemplary Voices (2004), p.22: Western civilization is also sometimes described as "Christian" or "Judaeo- Christian" civilization.
76. Dawson, Christopher; Glenn Olsen (1961). Crisis in Western Education (reprint ed.). CUA Press. p. 108. ISBN 978-0-8132-1683-6.
77. Koch, Carl (1994). The Catholic Church: Journey, Wisdom, and Mission. Early Middle Ages: St. Mary's Press. ISBN 978-0-88489-298-4.
78. Dawson, Christopher; Glenn Olsen (1961). Crisis in Western Education (reprint ed.). CUA Press. ISBN 978-0-8132-1683-6.
79. Dawson, Christopher; Glenn Olsen (1961). Crisis in Western Education (reprint ed.). CUA Press. p. 108. ISBN 9780813216836.
80. "Regional Distribution of Christians". Pewforum.org. 19 December 2011. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
81. "Global Christianity: A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Christian Population" (PDF), Pew Research Center, 383, p. 130, 2011, archived from the original (PDF) on 5 August 2013, retrieved 14 August 2013
82. "Discrimination in the EU in 2012" (PDF), Special Eurobarometer, 383, European Union: European Commission, p. 233, 2012, archived from the original (PDF) on 2 December 2012, retrieved 14 August 2013
83. "Global Christianity – A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Christian Population". 19 December 2011.
84. Zurlo, Gina; Skirbekk, Vegard; Grim, Brian (2019). Yearbook of International Religious Demography 2017. BRILL. p. 85. ISBN 9789004346307.
85. Ogbonnaya, Joseph (2017). African Perspectives on Culture and World Christianity. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 2–4. ISBN 9781443891592.
86. "The Future of the Global Muslim Population". Pewforum.org. 27 January 2011. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
87. "Table: Muslim Population by Country". Pewforum.org. 27 January 2011. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
88. "In Europa leben gegenwärtig knapp 53 Millionen Muslime" [Almost 53 million Muslims live in Europe at present]. Islam.de (in German). 8 May 2007. Retrieved 15 January 2016.
89. Lipka, Michael. "The continuing decline of Europe's Jewish population".
90. "Jews". December 18, 2012.
91. "EC.Europa.eu" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 May 2006.
92. "Religiously Unaffiliated". Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project. 18 December 2012. Retrieved 22 February 2015.
93. This is particularly the case among proponents of the so-called confederalist or neo-functionalist position on European integration. Eder and Spohn (2005:3) note: "The evolutionary thesis of the making of a European identity often goes with the assumption of a simultaneous decline of national identities. This substitution thesis reiterates the well-known confederalist/neo-functionalist position in the debate on European integration, arguing for an increasing replacement of the nation-state by European institutions, against the intergovernmentalist/realist position, insisting on the continuing primacy of the nation-state."
94. "Country Policy and Information Note Albania: Ethnic minority groups" (PDF).
95. "Population: Demographic Situation, Languages and Religions". 9 October 2017.
96. The Greeks: the land and people since the war. James Pettifer. Penguin, 2000. ISBN 0-14-028899-6
97. "CIA Factbook 2010". Retrieved 26 July 2010.
98. "Census 2001, Population by Districts and Ethnic Groups as of 01.03.2001". Nsi.bg. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
99. "Results" (xlsx). Census of Population, Households and Dwellings in 2021. Zagreb: Croatian Bureau of Statistics. 2022.
100. Persons of Danish origin: 4 985 415. Total population: 5 511 451 Statistics Denmark
101. https://www.un.org/depts/DGACM/RegionalGroups.shtml United Nations Regional Eastern European Group
102. "Background – Hagstofa". Hagstofa. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
103. "Legge 482". www.camera.it.
104. Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for. "Refworld – World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Italy". Refworld.org. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
105. "Endangered languages: the full list". The Guardian Datablog facts are sacred. 15 April 2011. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
106. "Indicatori demografici". Istat.it. 30 November 2014. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
107. "CITTADINI NON COMUNITARI REGOLARMENTE SOGGIORNANTI : Anni 2013–2014" (PDF). Istat.it. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
108. "Cittadini Stranieri. Popolazione residente per sesso e cittadinanza al 31 Dicembre 2012 Italia – Tutti i Paesi". Demo.istat.it. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
109. Италианските българи (in Bulgarian). 24 Chasa. Archived from the original on 8 June 2015.
110. "On key provisional results of Population and Housing Census 2011 | Latvijas statistika". Csb.gov.lv. 18 January 2012. Retrieved 13 August 2012.
111. "MALTA : general data". Populstat.info. Archived from the original on 25 June 2009. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
112. "Focus on Sámi in Norway". Statistics Norway. Archived from the original on 9 March 2012.
113. regionaldepartementet, Kommunal- og (8 December 2000). "St.meld. nr. 15 (2000–2001)". Regjeringa.no.
114. Personer med innvandringsbakgrunn, etter innvandringskategori, landbakgrunn og kjønn. 1. januar 2012 ( Archived 18 September 2012 at the Wayback Machine SSB (Statistics Norway), Retrieved 6 November 2012
115. Официальный сайт Всероссийской переписи населения 2010 года. Информационные материалы об окончательных итогах Всероссийской переписи населения 2010 года Archived 6 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine
116. "Всероссийская перепись населения 2010. Национальный состав населения РФ 2010". Gks.ru. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
117. "SCB.se". Scb.se. Archived from the original on 6 April 2008. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
118. "SCB.se". Scb.se. Archived from the original on 12 March 2011. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
119. "Statistical information about Switzerland". www.about.ch. Retrieved 2022-09-29.

Bibliography

• Andrews, Peter A.; Benninghaus, Rüdiger (2002), Ethnic Groups in the Republic of Turkey, Reichert, ISBN 978-3-89500-325-7
• Banks, Marcus (1996), Ethnicity: Anthropological Constructions, Routledge
• Berting, J. (2006), Europe: A Heritage, a Challenge, a Promise, Eburon Academic Publishers, ISBN 978-90-5972-120-3
• Cederman, Lars-Erik (2001), "Political Boundaries and Identity Trade-Offs", in Cederman, Lars-Erik (ed.), Constructing Europe's Identity: The External Dimension, London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, pp. 1–34
• Cole, J. W.; Wolf, E. R. (1999), The Hidden Frontier: Ecology and Ethnicity in an Alpine Valley, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-21681-5
• Davies, N. (1996), Europe: A History, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-820171-7
• Dow, R. R.; Bockhorn, O. (2004), The Study of European Ethnology in Austria, Progress in European Ethnology, Ashgate Publishing, ISBN 978-0-7546-1747-1
• Eberhardt, Piotr; Owsinski, Jan (2003), Ethnic Groups and Population Changes in Twentieth-century Central Eastern Europe, M.E. Sharpe, ISBN 978-0-7656-0665-5
• Eder, Klaus; Spohn, Willfried (2005). Collective Memory and European Identity: The Effects of Integration and Enlargement. Burlington: Ashgate Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-7546-4401-9.
• Gresham, D.; et al. (2001), "Origins and divergence of the Roma (Gypsies)", American Journal of Human Genetics, 69 (6): 1314–1331, doi:10.1086/324681, PMC 1235543, PMID 11704928 Online article
• Karolewski, Ireneusz Pawel; Kaina, Viktoria (2006), European Identity: Theoretical Perspectives and Empirical Insights, LIT Verlag, ISBN 978-3-8258-9288-3
• Jordan-Bychkov, T.; Bychkova-Jordan, B. (2008), The European Culture Area: A Systematic Geography, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield, ISBN 978-0-7425-1628-1
• Latham, Robert Gordon (1854), The Native Races of the Russian Empire, Hippolyte Baillière (London) Full text on google books
• Laitin, David D. (2000), Culture and National Identity: "the East" and European Integration, Robert Schuman Centre
• Gross, Manfred (2004), Romansh: Facts & Figures, Lia Rumantscha, ISBN 978-3-03900-037-1 Online version
• Levinson, David (1998), Ethnic Groups Worldwide: A Ready Reference Handbook, Greenwood Publishing Group, ISBN 978-1-57356-019-1 part I: Europe, pp. 1–100.
• Hobsbawm, E. J.; Kertzer, David J. (1992), "Ethnicity and Nationalism in Europe Today", Anthropology Today, 8 (1): 3–8, doi:10.2307/3032805, JSTOR 3032805
• Minahan, James (2000), One Europe, many nations: a historical dictionary of European national groups, Greenwood Publishing Group, ISBN 978-0-313-30984-7
• Panikos Panayi, Outsiders: A History of European Minorities (London: Hambledon Press, 1999)
• Olson, James Stuart; Pappas, Lee Brigance; Pappas, Nicholas Charles (1994), An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of the Russian and Soviet Empire, Greenwood, ISBN 978-0-313-27497-8
• O'Néill, Diarmuid (2005), Rebuilding the Celtic languages: reversing language shift in the Celtic countries, Y Lolfa, ISBN 978-0-86243-723-7
• Panayi, Panikos (1999), An Ethnic History of Europe Since 1945: Nations, States and Minorities, Longman, ISBN 978-0-582-38135-3
• Parman, S., ed. (1998), Europe in the Anthropological Imagination, Prentice Hall
• Stephens, Meic (1976), Linguistic Minorities in Western Europe, Gomer Press, ISBN 978-0-608-18759-4
• Szaló, Csaba (1998), On European Identity: Nationalism, Culture & History, Masaryk University, ISBN 978-80-210-1839-6
• Stone, Gerald (1972), The Smallest Slavonic Nation: The Sorbs of Lusatia, Athlene Press, ISBN 978-0-485-11129-3
• Tubb, Jonathan N. (1998). Canaanites. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 40. ISBN 978-0-8061-3108-5. The Canaanites and Their Land.
• Vembulu, R. Pavananthi (2003), Understanding European Integration: History, Culture, and Politics of Identity, Aakar Books, ISBN 978-81-87879-10-7

Further reading

• GROWup - Geographical Research On War, Unified Platform, ETH Zurich, Ethnic Power Relations (EPR) Atlas
• Ron Balsdon, The Cultural Mosaic of the European Union: Why National Boundaries and the Cultures Inside Still Matter
• Migration Policy Institute – Country and Comparative Data
• Mason, Otis Tufton (1905). "Europe, Peoples of" . New International Encyclopedia.
• Gibbons, Ann (15 May 2019). "There's no such thing as a 'pure' European—or anyone else". Science. doi:10.1126/science.aal1186.

1. Pan, Christoph; Pfeil, Beate S. (2003). "The Peoples of Europe by Demographic Size, Table 1". National Minorities in Europe: Handbook. Wien: Braumueller. p. 11f. ISBN 978-3-7003-1443-1. (a breakdown by country of these 87 groups is given in Table 5, pp. 17–31.)