European emigration

European emigration is the successive emigration waves from the European continent to other continents. The origins of the various European diasporas^[36] can be traced to the people who left the European nation states or stateless ethnic communities on the European continent.

European emigration

Regions with significant populations
United States	204,277,273 (2020) 31,134,234 (Mixed)[1][2]
Brazil	88,252,121 (2022) 92,083,286 (Mixed)[3][4]
Mexico	52,000,000[5][6][7][8]
Argentina	39,137,000[9]
Siberia	33,210,040
Canada	27,364,000 (2021)[10]
Australia	21,800,000[11]
Venezuela	13,169,949 (2011)[12][13][14]
Chile	10,520,000[9]
Colombia	10,400,000[14]
Cuba	7,160,000[15]
South Africa	4,504,252 (2022) 5,052,349 (Mixed)[16]
Kazakhstan	3,735,874[17]
New Zealand	3,383,742 (2023)[18]
Costa Rica	3,319,082[9]
Uruguay	3,101,095[19]
Israel	2,800,000[20]
Canary Islands	2,172,944[21]
Dominican Republic	1,611,752[22]
Guatemala	1,780,000[23]
Paraguay	1,750,000[9]
Peru	1,366,931 (2017) 13,965,254 (Mixed)[24]
Nicaragua	1,100,000[25]
El Salvador	1,087,000[9]
Cyprus	780,000[26]
Puerto Rico	560,592 (2020)[27]
Ecuador	374,925 (2022) 14,672,530 (Mixed)[28]
Bolivia	548,000[14]
Kyrgyzstan	352,889[29]
Angola	300,000[30]
Madeira	250,769[31]
Réunion	250,000[32]
Namibia	150,000[33]
Honduras	120,000[9]
New Caledonia	80,000[34]
Ceuta	60,000[citation needed]
Melilla	60,000[citation needed]
Languages
Languages of Europe (mostly English, Spanish, Portuguese, minority of French, Dutch, and Russian, also Polish, German and Italian)
Religion
Majority Christianity[35] (mostly Protestant, Catholic, and Orthodox). Minority includes Islam and Judaism. Irreligion  · Other Religions
Related ethnic groups
Europeans

From 1500 to the mid-20th century, 60–65 million people left Europe, of which less than 9% went to tropical areas (the Caribbean, Asia, and Africa).^[37]

From 1815 to 1932, 65 million people left Europe (with many returning home), primarily to areas of European settlement in North and South America,^[38] in addition to South Africa, Australia,^[39] New Zealand, and Siberia.^[40] These populations also multiplied rapidly in their new habitat; much more so than the populations of Africa and Asia. As a result, on the eve of World War I, 38% of the world's total population was of European ancestry.^[40] Most European emigrants to the New World came from mainly Italy, Germany, Ireland, United Kingdom, Spain, Poland, and Portugal, as well as France, Hungary, the Netherlands, Austria, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Armenia, Greece, Lithuania, Russia, and Ukraine.

More contemporary, European emigration can also refer to emigration from one European country to another, especially in the context of the internal mobility in the European Union (intra-EU mobility) or mobility within the Eurasian Union.

History

8th - early 5th century BC: Greek settlement

In Archaic Greece, trading and colonizing activities of the Greek tribes from the Black Sea, Southern Italy (the so-called "Magna Graecia") and Asia Minor propagated Greek culture, religion and language around the Mediterranean and Black Sea basins. Greek city-states were established in Southern Europe, northern Libya and the Black Sea coast, and the Greeks founded over 400 colonies in these areas.^[41] Alexander the Great's conquest of the Achaemenid Empire marked the beginning of the Hellenistic period, which was characterized by a new wave of Greek colonization in Asia and Africa; the Greek ruling classes established their presence in Egypt, southwest Asia, and Northwest India.^[42] Many Greeks migrated to the new Hellenistic cities founded in Alexander's wake, as geographically dispersed as Uzbekistan^[43] and Kuwait.^[44]

1450-1800: Emigration to the Americas

The European continent has been a central part of a complex migration system, which included swaths of North Africa, the Middle East and Asia Minor well before the modern era. Yet, only the population growth of the late Middle Ages allowed for larger population movements, inside and outside of the continent.^[45] The European exploration of the Americas stimulated a steady stream of voluntary migration from Europe.

Spain and Portugal

About 200,000 Spaniards settled in their American provinces prior to 1600, a small settlement compared to the 3 to 4 million Amerindians who lived in Spanish territory in the Americas.

During the 1500s, Spain and Portugal sent a steady flow of government and church officials, members of the lesser nobility, people from the working classes and their families averaging roughly three-thousand people per year from a population of around eight million. A total of around 437,000 left Spain in the 150-year period from 1500 to 1650 mainly to Mexico,^[46] Peru in South America, and the Caribbean Islands. It has been estimated that over 1.86 million Spaniards emigrated to South America in the period between 1492 and 1824, one million in the 18th century, with millions more continuing to immigrate following independence.^[47]

Between 1500 and 1700, 100,000 Portuguese crossed the Atlantic to settle in Brazil. However, with the discovery of numerous highly productive gold mines in the Minas Gerais region, the Portuguese emigration to Brazil increased by fivefold. From 1500, when the Portuguese reached Brazil, until its independence in 1822, from 500,000 to 700,000 Portuguese settled in Brazil, 600,000 of whom arrived in the 18th century alone.^{[citation needed]} From 1700 until 1760, over half a million Portuguese immigrants entered Brazil. In the 18th century, thanks to the gold rush, the capital of the province of Minas Gerais, the town of Vila Rica (today, Ouro Preto) became for a time one of the most populous cities in the New World. This massive influx of Portuguese immigration and influence created a city which remains to this day, one of the best examples of 18th century European architecture in the Americas.^[38] However, the development of the mining economy in the 18th century raised wages and employment opportunities in the Portuguese colony and emigration increased: in the 18th century alone, about 600,000 Portuguese settled in Brazil.^[48]

General European emigration

See also: European immigration to the Americas

Roughly one and a half million Europeans settled in the New World between 1500 and 1800 (see table). The table excludes European immigrants to the Spanish Empire from 1650 to 1800 and Portuguese immigration to Brazil from 1760 to 1800. While the absolute number of European emigrants during the Early Modern period was very small compared to later waves of migration in the 19th and 20th centuries, the relative size of these early modern migrations was nevertheless substantial.

Between one-half and two-thirds of European immigrants to the Thirteen Colonies between the 1630s and the American Revolution came under indentures.^[49] The practice was sufficiently common that the Habeas Corpus Act 1679, in part, prevented imprisonments overseas; it also made provisions for those with existing transportation contracts and those "praying to be transported" in lieu of remaining in prison upon conviction.^[50] In any case, while half the European immigrants to the Thirteen Colonies had been indentured servants, at any one time they were outnumbered by workers who had never been indentured, or whose indenture had expired. Free wage labor was more common for Europeans in the colonies.^[51]

Indentured persons were numerically important, mostly in the region from Virginia north to New Jersey. Other colonies saw far fewer of them. The total number of European immigrants to all 13 colonies before 1775 was about 500,000–550,000; of these, 55,000 were involuntary prisoners. Of the 450,000 or so European arrivals who came voluntarily, Tomlins estimates that 48% were indentured.^[52] About 75% were under the age of 25. The age of legal adulthood for men was 24 years; those over 24 generally came on contracts lasting about 3 years.^[52] Regarding the children who came, Gary Nash reports that, "many of the servants were actually nephews, nieces, cousins and children of friends of emigrating Englishmen, who paid their passage in return for their labour once in America."^[53]

Figures for immigration in the Spanish Empire in 1650–1800 and in Brazil in 1700–1800 are not given in the table.

Numbers of European Emigrants 1500–1783

Country of origin	Number	Period
Spain	437,000	1500–1650
Portugal	100,000	1500–1700
	500,000	1700–1760
Great Britain	400,000	1607–1700
Great Britain (totals)	322,000	1700–1780
Scotland, Ireland [clarification needed]	190,000–25,000 [clarification needed]
France	51,000	1608–1760
Germany (Southwestern, totals)	100,000	1683–1783
Switzerland [clarification needed], Alsace–Lorraine
Totals	1,410,000	1500–1783

Source:^[38]

Scottish Highland family migrating to New Zealand

In North America, immigration was dominated by British, German, Irish and other Northern Europeans.^[54] Emigration to New France laid the origins of modern Canada, with important early immigration of colonists from Northern France.^[48]

Emigration in the 19th and 20th centuries

There was mass European emigration to the Americas, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand in the 19th and 20th centuries, as a result of a dramatic demographic transition in 19th-century Europe, subsequent wars and political changes on the continent. From the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815 to the end of World War I in 1918, millions of Europeans emigrated. Of these, 71% went to North America, 21% to Central and South America and 7% to Australia. About 11 million of these people went to Latin America, of whom 38% were Italians, 28% were Spaniards and 11% were Portuguese.^[55]

Singer Carmen Miranda, nicknamed "the Brazilian bombshell", was born in Portugal and emigrated to Brazil in 1910, when she was ten months old.

In Brazil, the proportion of immigrants in the national population was much smaller. Immigrants tended to be concentrated in the central and southern parts of the country. The proportion of foreigners in Brazil peaked in 1920, at just 7 percent or 2 million people, mostly Italians, Portuguese, Germans and Spaniards. However, the influx of 4 million European immigrants between 1870 and 1920 significantly altered the racial composition of the country.^[54] From 1901 to 1920, immigration was responsible for only 7 percent of Brazilian population growth, but in the years of high immigration, from 1891 to 1900, the share was as high as 30 percent (higher than Argentina's 26 percent in the 1880s).^[56]

The countries in the Americas that received a major wave of European immigrants from 1820s to the early 1930s were: the United States (32.5 million), Argentina (6.5 million), Canada (5 million), Brazil (4.5 million), Venezuela (2.2 million), Cuba (1.3 million), Chile (728,000), Uruguay (713,000).^[57] Other countries that received a more modest immigration flow (accounting for less than 10 percent of total European emigration to Latin America) were: Mexico (226,000), Colombia (126,000), Puerto Rico (62,000), Peru (30,000), and Paraguay (21,000).^[57][56]

Arrivals in the 19th and 20th centuries

European emigrants 1800–1960

Destination	Percent
United States	70.0%
South America	12.0%
Russian Siberia	9.0%
Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa	9.0%
Total	100.0%

Source:^{[58][pages needed][failed verification]}

Destination	Years	Arrivals	Ref(s)
United States	1821–1932	32,244,000	[59]
Argentina	1856–1932	6,405,000	[59]
Canada	1831–1932	5,206,000	[59]
Brazil	1818–1932	4,431,000	[59]
Australia	1821–1932	2,913,000	[59]
Cuba	1901–1931	857,000	[59]
South Africa	1881–1932	852,000	[59]
Chile	1882–1932	726,000	[59]
Uruguay	1836–1932	713,000	[59]
New Zealand	1821–1932	594,000	[59]
Mexico	1911–1931	226,000	[59]

Legacy

Distribution

Map of Greek territories and colonies during the Archaic period (800–480 BC)

Global emigration map for 1858, by CJ Minard, Paris, 1862

After the Age of Discovery, different ethnic European communities began to emigrate out of Europe with particular concentrations in Australia, New Zealand, the United States, Canada, Argentina, Uruguay, Colombia, Venezuela, Cuba, Costa Rica, Brazil, Chile, and Puerto Rico where they came to constitute a European-descended majority population.^{[58][60][61][62]} It is important to note, however, that these statistics rely on identification with a European ethnic group in censuses, and as such are subjective (especially in the case of mixed origins). Nations and regions outside Europe with significant populations:^[63]

Canada

In the first Canadian census in 1871, 98.5% chose a European origin with it slightly decreasing to 96.3% declared in 1971.^[64][65] In the 2016 census, 19,683,320 self-identified with a European ethnic origin, the largest being of British Isles origins (11,211,850). Individually, they are English (6,320,085), Scottish (4,799,005), French (4,680,820), Irish (4,627,000), German (3,322,405), Italian (1,587,965).^[66]

United States

The 2020 United States census data revealed that English Americans 46.5 million (19.8%), German Americans 45m (19.1%), Irish Americans 38.6m (16.4%) and Italian Americans 16.8m (7.1%) were the four largest self-reported European ancestry groups at 62.4% of the white alone or in combination population, reflecting the early settlement.^[67] At the time of the first U.S. census in 1790, 80.7% of the American people self-identified as White, where it remained above that level, even reaching as high as 90% prior to the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965. However, numerically it increased from 3.17 million (1790) to 199.6 million exactly two hundred years later (1990).^[68]

Mexico

Guillermo del Toro, Mexican filmmaker, is a European Mexican.

The European Mexican population is estimated by the government in 2010 as 47% of the population (56 million) using phenotypical traits (skin color) as the criteria.^{[5][7][69][8]} The use of skin color palettes as the primary criteria to estimate the ethnoracial groups that inhabit a given country has its origin in the investigations produced by Princeton and Vanderbilt Universities, which found it to be more accurate than self-identification particularly in Latin America, where the different discourses that exist in regards to national identity have rendered previous attempts to estimate ethnic groups unreliable.^[70] If the criterion used is the presence of blond hair, it is 18%^[71][72] - 23%.^[73]

Caribbean and Central America

Cuban enumerators in Pinar del Rio, 1899

According to the 2012 census, white people in Cuba make up 64.1% or 7,160,399 of the population.^[74][75]

Cubans of European origin (primarily Spanish) reached its highest proportion during the early to mid twentieth century. In 1943 the census showed 74.3% or 3,553,312 self-identify as white.^[76][77]

Germans in Costa Rica.

In Costa Rica 83.7% of the population is White and Mestizo.^[78] Other sources estimate different results between whites and mestizos.^[79][80][81] Most are of Spanish and Italian descent,^[82] however there are also German,^[83] Polish^[84] and French communities. During the last half of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century, it welcomed more than 100,000 Europeans, mainly from Spain and Italy. It is estimated that about 50,000 Spaniards and Italians, 10,000 Germans and 40,000 Europeans of other nationalities, especially from France, Poland and England.^{[85][86][87][88]} Costa Rica had the greatest European migratory impact in Central America. When Costa Rica became independent, the population was barely 60,000 inhabitants.^[89]

The 2022 Dominican census showed that 1,611,752 people or 18.7% of those 12 years old and above identify as white, 731,855 males and 879,897 females.^[90]

In El Salvador 12.7% of the population identifies as "white",^[91] 86.3% of the population were mestizo or people of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry. The majority being Spanish descendants from Galicia and Asturias. In El Salvador, settlement peaked between 1880 and 1920, when 120,000 European and Arab immigrants entered the country, the Europeans being mostly Italians, Spanish and Germans.^[92][93]

In Guatemala, 5% of the population is of European descent, primarily of either Spanish and German origins. Many German, Italian and Spanish Families arrived in Guatemala, the Germans for their part were the largest group, Immigration had a massive character^[94][89]

South America

Italian Argentines are 62.5% of the Argentine population.

In Argentina, 85% of the population or 39,137,000 are estimated to be of European descent.^{[9][failed verification]}

In Brazil, according to the 2022 census, 88.8% (180 million) of Brazilians are of full or partial European descent. 43.46% (88 million) are of European descent only and identify as White. 45.34% (92 million) are descendants of Europeans mixed with Africans or indigenous people and declare themselves as Pardo.

The Falkland Islanders are mainly of European descent, especially British, and can trace their heritage back 9 generations or 200 years. In 2016, the census showed that 42.9 percent were native born and 27.4 percent were born in the U.K. (the second largest birthplace) for a total of more than 70 percent.^[95] The Falkland Islands were entirely unoccupied and were first claimed by Britain in 1765.^[96] Settlers largely from the United Kingdom, especially Scotland and Wales arrived after the 1830s. The total population of then islands grew from a 287 estimate in 1851 to 3,200 in the most recent 2016 census.^[97][98] The Origins of Falkland Islanders historically had a Gaucho presence.

In Peru the official 2017 census, 5.9% or (1.3 mil) 1,336,931 people 12 years of age and above self-identified their ancestors as White or of European descent.^[99]: 214 This was the first time a question on race or ancestors had been asked since the 1940 census.^[100] There were 619,402 (5.5%) males and 747,528 (6.3%) females. The region with the highest proportion of Peruvians with self-identified European or white origins was in the La Libertad Region (10.5%), Tumbes Region and Lambayeque Region (9.0%).^[99]: 214 Most are descendants of early Spanish settlers with substantial numbers of Italians and Germans.^[100]

Australia and New Zealand

Using data from the 2016 census, it was estimated that around 58% of the Australian population were Anglo-Celtic Australians with 18% being of other European origins, a total of 76% for European ancestries as a whole.^[101] As of 2016, the majority of Australians of European descent are of English (36.1%), Irish (11.0%), Scottish (9.3%), Italian (4.6%), German (4.5%), Greek (1.8%) and Dutch (1.6%) ancestries. A large proportion —33.5%— chose to identify as 'Australian', however the census Bureau has stated that most of these are of old Anglo-Celtic colonial stock.^{[102][103][104]}

Europeans historically (especially Anglo-Celtic) and presently are still the largest ethnic group in New Zealand. Their proportion of the total New Zealand population has been decreasing gradually since the 1916 census where they formed 95.1 percent.^[105] The 2018 official census had over 3 million people or 71.76% of the population were ethnic Europeans, with 64.1% choosing the New Zealand European option alone.^[106]

African coast (Macaronesia)

Canary Islanders are the descendants of Spaniards who settled the Canary Islands. The Canarian people include long-tenured and new waves of Spanish immigrants, including Andalucians, Galicians, Castilians, Catalans, Basques and Asturians of Spain; and Portuguese, Italians, Dutch or Flemings, and French. As of 2019, 72.1% or 1,553,078 were native Canary islanders with a further 8.2% born in mainland Spain.^[107] Many of European origins including those of Isleño (islander) lineage have also moved to the islands, such as those from Venezuela and Cuba. Presently there are 49,170 from Italy, 25,619 from Germany, United Kingdom (25,521) and others from Romania, France and Portugal.^[108]

Asia

See also: Britons in India

In Asia, European-derived populations (specifically Russians), predominate in North Asia and some parts of northern Kazakhstan.^[109] They are also a significant minority in Kyrgyzstan, predominantly in the northern part of the country (Chüy Region, Bishkek and the Issyk-Kul Region), where they constitute approximately 1/5 of the population. In Japan and China, there's a sizeable community of ethnic Russians as well, which are Russians in Japan and Russians in China.

Approximately 5–7 million Muslim migrants from the Balkans (from Bulgaria 1.15 million-1.5 million; Greece 1.2 million; Romania, 400,000; Former Yugoslavia, 800,000), Russia (500,000), the Caucasus (900,000 of whom 2/3 remained the rest going to Syria, Jordan and Cyprus) and Syria (500,000 mostly as a result of the Syrian Civil War) arrived in Ottoman Anatolia and modern Turkey from 1783 to 2016 of whom 4 million came by 1924, 1.3 million came post-1934 to 1945 and more than 1.2 million before the outbreak of the Syrian Civil War. Today, between a third and a quarter of Turkey's population of almost 80 million have ancestry from these Muhacirs.^[110]

In the Philippines, a genetic study by the National Geographic, shows that about 5% of the ancestry of Filipinos comes from Southern Europe (mostly Spanish) that had arrived during the Spanish colonisation of the archipelago. Additionally, an estimated 250,000 Filipino Amerasians descend from American servicemen stationed in the country.^{[111][112][113]}

Populations of European descent

Further information: List of diasporas

• Albanian diaspora
  • Kosovar diaspora
• Armenian diaspora
• Ashkenazi diaspora
• Austrian diaspora
• Belarusian diaspora
• Belgian diaspora
  • Flemish diaspora
  • Walloon diaspora
• Bosnian diaspora
• British diaspora
  • Cornish diaspora
  • English diaspora
  • Manx diaspora
  • Scottish diaspora
  • Welsh diaspora
• Bulgarian diaspora
• Croatian diaspora
• Czech diaspora
• Danish diaspora
• Dutch diaspora
• Estonian diaspora
• Finnish diaspora
• French diaspora
  • Breton diaspora
  • Corsican diaspora
  • Quebec diaspora
• Georgian diaspora
• German diaspora
• Greek diaspora
  • Greek Cypriot diaspora
• Hungarian diaspora
• Icelandic diaspora
• Irish diaspora
• Italian diaspora
  • Calabrian diaspora
  • Istrian–Dalmatian diaspora
  • Niçard diaspora
• Latvian diaspora
• Lithuanian diaspora
• Maltese diaspora
• Macedonian diaspora
• Montenegrin diaspora
• North Caucasian diaspora
  • Chechen diaspora
  • Circassian diaspora
• Norwegian diaspora
• Polish diaspora
  • Kashubian diaspora
• Portuguese diaspora
• Romani diaspora
• Romanian diaspora
  • Moldovan diaspora
• Russian diaspora
• Serbian diaspora
• Slovak diaspora
• Slovene diaspora
• Spanish diaspora
  • Asturian diaspora
  • Basque diaspora
  • Canarian diaspora
  • Catalan diaspora
  • Galician diaspora
  • Sephardic diaspora
• Swedish diaspora
• Swiss diaspora
• Ukrainian diaspora
  • Crimean Tatar diaspora
  • Ruthenian/Rusyn diaspora

See also

• Emigration from Africa
• History of colonialism
• Immigration to the Western world
  • Immigration to Europe
• Indigenous people
• Western world
• Western culture
• White people
• White Americans
• European Americans
• American diaspora
• European Brazilians
• European Mexicans
• European Argentines
• European Canadians
• European Australians
• European New Zealanders
• European Colombians
• European Venezuelans

References

1. "2022 American Community Survey". Census Reporter. 12 August 2021. Retrieved 28 June 2024.
2. Includes Hispanic whites
3. "Tabela 9605: População residente, por cor ou raça, nos Censos Demográficos". sidra.ibge.gov.br. Retrieved 11 January 2024.
4. Azevedo, Ana Laura Moura dos Santos. "IBGE - Educa | Jovens". IBGE Educa Jovens (in Brazilian Portuguese). Retrieved 19 December 2020.
5. "21 de Marzo Día Internacional de la Eliminación de la Discriminación Racial" pag.7, CONAPRED, Mexico, 21 March. Retrieved on 28 April 2017.
6. "Encuesta Nacional Sobre Discriminación en Mexico”, "CONAPRED", Mexico DF, June 2011. Retrieved on 28 April 2017.
7. "Resultados del Modulo de Movilidad Social Intergeneracional" Archived July 9, 2018, at the Wayback Machine, INEGI, 16 June 2017, Retrieved on 30 April 2018.
8. "Ser Blanco", El Universal, 06 July 2017, Retrieved on 19 June 2018.
9. Lizcano Fernández, Francisco (August 2005). "Composición Étnica de las Tres Áreas Culturales del Continente Americano al Comienzo del Siglo XXI" [Ethnic Composition of the Three Cultural Areas of the American Continent at the Beginning of the XXI Century]. Convergencia (in Spanish). 12 (38): 185–232.
10. "The Daily — The Canadian census: A rich portrait of the country's religious and ethnocultural diversity". Statistics Canada. 26 October 2022. Retrieved 29 October 2022.
11. "Australian Human Rights commission 2018" (PDF). 2018. Retrieved 23 July 2020.
12. "Resultado Basico del XIV Censo Nacional de Población y Vivienda 2011" [Basic Results of the XIV National Population and Housing Census 2011] (PDF) (in Spanish). Caracas: National Institute of Statistics of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela. 9 August 2012. p. 14. Retrieved 1 March 2017.
13. "Demográficos: Censos de Población y Vivienda: Población Proyectada al 2016 - Base Censo 2011" [Demographics: Population and Housing Censuses: Population Projected to 2016 - Census Base 2011] (in Spanish). National Institute of Statistics. Retrieved 1 March 2017. adaption of the 42.2% white people from the census with current estimates
14. "Ethnic groups". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). Archived from the original on 6 January 2019. Retrieved 14 September 2013.
15. "Cuba - The World Factbook". www.cia.gov. 14 December 2021.
16. "Mid-year population estimates 2022". Retrieved 27 August 2022.
17. "Численность населения Республики Казахстан по отдельным этносам на начало 2024 года". Retrieved 22 April 2024.
18. "2023 Census population counts (by ethnic group, age, and Māori descent) and dwelling counts | Stats NZ". www.stats.govt.nz. Retrieved 29 May 2024.
19. Cabella, Wanda; Mathías Nathan; Mariana Tenenbaum (December 2013). Juan José Calvo (ed.). Atlas sociodemográfico y de la desigualdad del Uruguay, Fascículo 2: La población afro-uruguaya en el Censo 2011: Ancestry [Atlas of socio-demographics and inequality in Uruguay, Part 2: The Afro-Uruguayan population in the 2011 Census] (PDF) (in Spanish). Uruguay National Institute of Statistics. ISBN 978-9974-32-625-5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 February 2014.
20. "Latest Population Statistics for Israel". www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 4 June 2024.
21. "Población por comunidades y ciudades autónomas y sexo". Retrieved 15 November 2022.
22. "En RD 2,879,388 se identificaron como negras y morenas y 1,640,095 como asiaticas o blancas". 1 October 2024. Retrieved 19 October 2024.
23. Ethnic and Religious Diversity in Central America, PROLADES.
24. "Perú: Perfil Sociodemográfico" (PDF). Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. p. 214. Retrieved 5 February 2020.
25. "Nicaragua Demographics Profile".
26. "Population – Country of Birth, Citizenship Category, Country of Citizenship, Language, Religion, Ethnic/Religious Group, 2011". Statistical Service of the Republic of Cyprus. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 26 April 2016.
27. "Puerto Rico ponders race amid surprising census results". Los Angeles Times. 16 October 2021. Retrieved 22 September 2022.
28. "Ecuador: Censo de Población y Vivienda 2022" (PDF). censoecuador.gob.ec. 21 September 2023. Retrieved 22 May 2024.
29. "National composition of the population of the Kyrgyz Republic for 2022".
30. "Angola threat to end special relations with Portugal". 31 October 2013.
31. "Resident population (No.) by Place of residence, Sex and Age group; Decennial - Statistics Portugal, Population and housing census – 2021". INE. Archived from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 17 November 2022.
32. Tarnus, Evelyne; Bourdon, Emmanuel (December 2006). "Anthropometric evaluations of body composition of undergraduate students at the University of La Réunion". Advances in Physiology Education. 30 (4): 248–253. doi:10.1152/advan.00069.2005. PMID 17108254. S2CID 19474655.
33. "Namibia vows to change 'status-quo' of white-farm ownership". News24.
34. "Communauté d'appartenance – INSEE – ISEE / Recensement de la population de 2009 en Nouvelle-Calédonie" (XLS). Nouméa: Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies (ISEE-NC). Retrieved 24 August 2015.
35. Philip Jenkins, from "The Christian Revolution," in The Next Christendom: The Coming of Global Christianity, Oxford University Press, 2002.
36. The use of the term "diaspora" in reference to people of European national or ethnic origins is contested and debated- Bauböck, Rainer; Faist, Thomas (2010). Diaspora and transnationalism : concepts, theories and methods. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. ISBN 9789089642387. OCLC 657637171.
37. Etemad, Bouda (August 2007). "Pour une approche démographique de l'expansion coloniale de l'Europe Bouda Etemad Dans Annales de démographie historique 2007/1 (n° 113), pages 13 à 32". Annales de Démographie Historique. 113 (1): 13–32. doi:10.3917/adh.113.0013.
38. Make America": European Emigration in the Early Modern Period edited by Ida Altman, James P. P. Horn (Page: 3 onwards)
39. De Lazzari, Chiara; Bruno Mascitelli (2016). "Migrant "Assimilation" in Australia: The Adult Migrant English Program from 1947 to 1971". In Bruno Mascitelli; Sonia Mycak; Gerardo Papalia (eds.). The European Diaspora in Australia: An Interdisciplinary Perspective. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 203. ISBN 978-1-4438-9419-7. Retrieved 28 February 2017.
40. "European Migration and Imperialism". historydoctor.net. Archived from the original on 22 November 2010. Retrieved 14 September 2013. The population of Europe entered its third and decisive stage in the early eighteenth century. Birthrates declined, but death rates also declined as the standard of living and advances in medical science provided for longer life spans. The population of Europe including Russia more than doubled from 188 million in 1800 to 432 million in 1900. From 1815 through 1932, sixty million people left Europe, primarily to "areas of European settlement," in North and South America, Australia, New Zealand and Siberia. These populations also multiplied rapidly in their new habitat; much more so than the populations of Africa and Asia. As a result, on the eve of World War I (1914), 38 percent of the world's total population was of European ancestry. This growth in population provided further impetus for European expansion, and became the driving force behind emigration. Rising populations put pressure on land, and land hunger and led to "land hunger." Millions of people went abroad in search of work or economic opportunity. The Irish, who left for America during the great Potato famine, were an extreme but not unique example. Ultimately, one third of all European migrants came from the British Isles between 1840 and 1920. Italians also migrated in large numbers because of poor economic conditions in their home country. German migration also was steady until industrial conditions in Germany improved when the wave of migration slowed. Less than one half of all migrants went to the United States, although it absorbed the largest number of European migrants. Others went to Asiatic Russia, Canada, Argentina, Brazil, Australia and New Zealand.
41. Jerry H. Bentley, Herbert F. Ziegler, "Traditions and Encounters, 2/e," Chapter 10: "Mediterranean Society: The Greek Phase" Archived 2012-03-06 at the Wayback Machine (McGraw-Hill, 2003)
42. Hellenistic Civilization Archived July 5, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
43. "Menander became the ruler of a kingdom extending along the coast of western India, including the whole of Saurashtra and the harbour Barukaccha. His territory also included Mathura, the Punjab, Gandhara and the Kabul Valley", Bussagli p101
44. John Pike. "Failaka Island". Globalsecurity.org. Retrieved 20 April 2016.
45. Mau, Steffen (2012). Liberal states and the freedom of movement : selective borders, unequal mobility. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 9780230277847. OCLC 768167292.
46. Axtell, James (September–October 1991). "The Columbian Mosaic in Colonial America". Humanities. 12 (5): 12–18. Archived from the original on 17 May 2008. Retrieved 8 October 2008.
47. MacIas, Rosario Marquez; MacÍas, Rosario Márquez (1995). La emigración española a América, 1765-1824. Universidad de Oviedo. ISBN 9788474688566.
48. Francis, R. D. (1988). Origins : Canadian history to Confederation. Jones, Richard, 1943-, Smith, Donald B. Toronto: Holt, Rinehart and Winston of Canada. ISBN 978-0039217051. OCLC 16577780.
49. Galenson 1984: 1
50. Charles II, 1679: An Act for the better secureing the Liberty of the Subject and for Prevention of Imprisonments beyond the Seas., Statutes of the Realm: Volume 5, 1628–80, pp 935–938. Great Britain Record Commission, (1819)
51. Donoghue, John (October 2013). "Indentured Servitude in the 17th Century English Atlantic: A Brief Survey of the Literature: Indentured Servitude in the 17th Century English Atlantic". History Compass. 11 (10): 893–902. doi:10.1111/hic3.12088.
52. Tomlins, Christopher (February 2001). "Reconsidering Indentured Servitude: European Migration and the Early American Labor Force, 1600–1775". Labor History. 42 (1): 5–43. doi:10.1080/00236560123269. S2CID 153628561.
53. Gary Nash, The Urban Crucible: The Northern Seaports and the Origins of the American Revolution (1979) p 15
54. Boris Fautos – Fazer a América: a imigração em massa para a América Latina."
55. Cánovas, Marília D. Klaumann (2004). "A grande emigração européia para o Brasil e o imigrante espanhol no cenário da cafeicultura paulista: aspectos de uma (in)visibilidade" [The great European immigration to Brazil and immigrants within the Spanish scenario of the Paulista coffee plantations: one of the issues (in) visibility]. Sæculum (in Portuguese). 11: 115–136.
56. Blanca Sánchez-Alonso (2005). "European Immigration into Latin America, 1870-1930" (PDF). docentes.fe.unl.pt. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 October 2008.
57. Baily, Samuel L.; Míguez, Eduardo José, eds. (2003). Mass Migration to Modern Latin America. Wilmington, Delaware: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-8420-2831-8. Retrieved 27 February 2017.
58. World Civilizations: Volume II: Since 1500 By Philip J. Adler, Randall L. Pouwels
59. Samuel L. Baily; Eduardo José Míguez (2003). Mass Migration to Modern Latin America. Rowman & Littlefield. p. xiv. ISBN 978-0-8420-2831-8. Retrieved 20 December 2015.
60. Francisco Hernández Delgado; María Dolores Rodríguez Armas (2010). "La emigración de Lanzarote y sus causas". Archivo Histórico Municipal de Teguise (www.archivoteguise.es) (in Spanish). Teguise, Lanzarote, Canary Islands: Departamento de Cultura y Patrimonio, Ayuntamiento de Teguise. Archived from the original on 27 July 2016. Retrieved 27 July 2016.
61. Ember et al. 2004, p. 47.
62. Marshall 2001, p. 254.
63. Ethnic groups by country. Statistics (where available) from CIA Factbook.
64. "Ethnic origins of the population 1871 to 1971" (PDF). Statcan.gc.ca. p. 17. Retrieved 13 November 2023.
65. "Table 1: Population by Ethnic Origin, Canada, 1921-1971" (PDF). Government of Canada. p. 2. Retrieved 13 November 2023.
66. "Statistics Canada Census Profile, 2016 Census: Ethnic origin population". Statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 13 November 2023.
67. "Census Bureau Releases 2020 Census Population for More Than 200 New Detailed Race and Ethnicity Groups". 21 September 2023. Retrieved 21 October 2023.
68. "Official census statistics of the United States race and Hispanic origin population" (PDF). US Statistics Bureau. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 March 2010.
69. "Visión INEGI 2021 Dr. Julio Santaella Castell", INEGI, 03 July 2017, Retrieved on 30 April 2018.
70. "Americas Latinobarometer Insights: 2012", Vanderbit University, 2012, Retrieved on 26 June 2021.
71. "Stratification by Skin Color in Contemporary Mexico", Jstor org, available creating a free account , Retrieved on 27 January 2018.
72. "Admixture in Latin America: Geographic Structure, Phenotypic Diversity and Self-Perception of Ancestry Based on 7,342 Individuals" table 1, Plosgenetics, 25 September 2014. Retrieved on 9 May 2017.
73. Ortiz-Hernández, Luis; Compeán-Dardón, Sandra; Verde-Flota, Elizabeth; Flores-Martínez, Maricela Nanet (April 2011). "Racism and mental health among university students in Mexico City". Salud Pública de México. 53 (2): 125–133. doi:10.1590/s0036-36342011000200005. PMID 21537803.
74. "Censo de Población y Viviendas de Cuba de 2012" (PDF). almendron. 2016. Retrieved 24 October 2024.
75. Copesa, Grupo (8 November 2013). "Censo en Cuba concluye que la población decrece, envejece y se vuelve cada vez más mestiza". latercera.com. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 22 May 2014.
76. "El Color de la Piel según el Censo de Población y Viviendas - ONEI P17" (PDF) (in Spanish). Retrieved 22 January 2022.
77. Fernandez, Nadine T (18 February 2010). Revolutionizing Romance: Interracial Couples in Contemporary Cuba. Rutgers University Press. ISBN 9780813549231. Retrieved 21 January 2022.
78. "Resultados Generales Censo 2011" (PDF). 2011. Retrieved 5 August 2021.
79. Lizcano Fernández, Francisco (May–August 2005). "Composición Étnica de las Tres Áreas Culturales del Continente Americano al Comienzo del Siglo XXI" [Ethnic Composition of the Three Cultural Areas of the American Continent at the Beginning of the 21st Century] (PDF). Convergencia. Revista de Ciencias Sociales (in Spanish). 12 (38). Toluca, México: Autonomous University of Mexico State: 185–232.
80. "Costa Rica | Location, Geography, People, Culture, Economy, & History". Encyclopedia Britannica.
81. Chang-Rodriguez, Eugenio (29 October 2007). Latinoamerica: Su civilizacion y su cultura. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1111801472.
82. "Italiana". Retrieved 5 August 2021.
83. "Herzlich Willkommen: Bienvenidos a la Expo Feria Alemana — Expo Feria Alemana". Archived from the original on 31 July 2020. Retrieved 21 May 2021.
84. "Migraciones Judías en Centroamérica y el Caribe: Proyección Epidemiológica de la Enfermedad de Gaucher" [Jewish Migrations in Central America and the Caribbean: Epidemiological Projection of Gaucher Disease]. VITAE Academia Biómedica Digital (in Spanish) (45). Vitae.ucv.ve. January–March 2011. ISSN 1317-987X. Retrieved 6 April 2022.
85. Porras, Carlos (13 June 2016). "Mis libros con notas.: Inmigración española en Costa Rica".
86. Acta académica (eJournal / eMagazine). [WorldCat.org]. 4 January 2019. OCLC 232114133. Retrieved 6 April 2022.
87. Perez-Siller, Javier (1998). México Francia: Memoria de una sensibilidad común; siglos XIX-XX. Tomo II. El Colegio de Michoacán A.C. ISBN 9789686029789.
88. "Los inmigrantes y el poder en Costa Rica" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 July 2015. Retrieved 29 June 2021.
89. Carlos Garcia684. "Inmigracion Europea En Centroamérica Después De La Colonia ( 1) : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive". Retrieved 6 April 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
90. "En RD 2,879,388 se identificaron como negras y morenas y 1,640,095 como asiaticas o blancas". 1 October 2024. Retrieved 23 October 2024.
91. "El Salvador - The World Factbook". www.cia.gov. 29 March 2022.
92. "Ser extranjero en Centroamérica. Génesis y evolución de las leyes de extranjería y migración en El Salvador: siglos XIX y XX". Retrieved 6 April 2022.
93. "Inmigrantes italianos en el Salvador_ Historia y cultura.PDF - Google Drive". Archived from the original on 29 June 2021. Retrieved 29 June 2021.
94. "Revista D - D fondo". Archived from the original on 28 October 2014. Retrieved 29 June 2021.
95. "2016 Falkland Island census report" (PDF). Falklandislandstimeline. p. 28. Retrieved 10 August 2020.
96. "Our People. Local life, traditions and services on the Islands". Falklands.gov.fk. Retrieved 10 August 2020.
97. "Falkland Island census data tables". Fig.gov.fk. Retrieved 10 August 2020.^{[permanent dead link]}
98. "2016 Falkland Island census report" (PDF). Falklandislandstimeline. Retrieved 10 August 2020.
99. "Perú: Perfil Sociodemográfico" (PDF). Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. Retrieved 16 March 2020.
100. Valdivia, Néstor (2011). El uso de categorías étnico/raciales en censos y encuestas en el Perú: balance y aportes para una discusión [The use of ethnic / racial categories in censuses and surveys in Peru: balance and contributions for a discussion] (in Spanish). GRADE Group for the Analysis of Development. ISBN 978-9972-615-57-3.^{[page needed]}
101. "Australian Human Rights commission 2018" (PDF). 2018. Retrieved 12 December 2019.
102. Australian Bureau of Statistics has stated that most who list "Australian" as their ancestry are part of the "Anglo-Celtic" group. "Feature Article - Ethnic and Cultural Diversity in Australia (Feature Article)". January 1995. Archived from the original on 20 April 2016. Retrieved 2008-06-24.
103. "THE ANCESTRIES OF AUSTRALIANS Census of Population and Housing: Reflecting Australia - Stories from the Census, 2016". abs.gov.au. Retrieved 29 April 2020.
104. "Census of Population and Housing: Reflecting Australia - Ancestry 2016". abs.gov.au. Retrieved 29 April 2020.
105. "Historical and statistical survey (P. 18)". Retrieved 29 April 2020.
106. "2018 Census totals by topic – national highlights". Stats NZ. 23 September 2019. Archived from the original on 23 September 2019. Retrieved 12 December 2019.
107. "Estadística del Padrón Continuo a 1 de enero de 2019. Datos a nivel nacional, comunidad autónoma y provincia". Retrieved 20 February 2020.
108. Canarias gana en un año 24.905 habitantes, el 66% de otros países Canarias7.es. Retrieved 5 October 2019
109. Hill, Fiona (23 February 2004). "Russia — Coming In From the Cold?". The Globalist. Archived from the original on 15 July 2011.
110. Bosma, Lucassen & Oostindie 2012, 17
111. "Reference Populations – Geno 2.0 Next Generation". Archived from the original on 7 April 2016. Retrieved 21 December 2017. National Geographic Genetic Study
112. Go MC, Jones AR, Algee-Hewitt B, Dudzik B, Hughes C (2019). "Classification Trends among Contemporary Filipino Crania Using Fordisc 3.1". Human Biology. 2 (4). University of Florida Press: 1–11. doi:10.5744/fa.2019.1005. S2CID 159266278. Archived from the original on 7 January 2021. Retrieved 13 September 2020. [Page 1] ABSTRACT: Filipinos represent a significant contemporary demographic group globally, yet they are underrepresented in the forensic anthropological literature. Given the complex population history of the Philippines, it is important to ensure that traditional methods for assessing the biological profile are appropriate when applied to these peoples. Here we analyze the classification trends of a modern Filipino sample (n = 110) when using the Fordisc 3.1 (FD3) software. We hypothesize that Filipinos represent an admixed population drawn largely from Asian and marginally from European parental gene pools, such that FD3 will classify these individuals morphometrically into reference samples that reflect a range of European admixture, in quantities from small to large. Our results show the greatest classification into Asian reference groups (72.7%), followed by Hispanic (12.7%), Indigenous American (7.3%), African (4.5%), and European (2.7%) groups included in FD3. This general pattern did not change between males and females. Moreover, replacing the raw craniometric values with their shape variables did not significantly alter the trends already observed. These classification trends for Filipino crania provide useful information for casework interpretation in forensic laboratory practice. Our findings can help biological anthropologists to better understand the evolutionary, population historical, and statistical reasons for FD3-generated classifications. The results of our study indicate that ancestry estimation in forensic anthropology would benefit from population-focused research that gives consideration to histories of colonialism and periods of admixture.
113. "The Philippines' forgotten generation". BBC News. 20 May 2014. Retrieved 20 September 2024.

Bibliography

• Bosma, Ulbe; Lucassen, Jan; Oostindie, Gert (2012). "Introduction. Postcolonial Migrations and Identity Politics: Towards a Comparative Perspective". Postcolonial Migrants and Identity Politics: Europe, Russia, Japan and the United States in Comparison. Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-0857453273.
• Ember, Carol R.; et al. (2004). Encyclopedia of Diasporas: Immigrant and Refugee Cultures Around the World. Springer. ISBN 978-0-306-48321-9.
• Marshall, Peter James (2001). The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-00254-7.