这篇大纲是哲学的总览和引导。
哲学是研究关于如存在、价值、理性、心灵、语言的普遍和基础的学问。[1][2]它不同于别的研究这种基础性问题的东西(如神秘主义、迷思或宗教),因为它具有批判性,有系统的研究方法,而且依赖理性论证。[3]它包含了对语言的逻辑分析,对词语和概念的意义的澄清,是一套观念,关于生命和宇宙的信念,而这些恰恰是我们常常不假思索地相信着的。“哲学”一词,来自希腊语“菲罗索非亚”(φιλοσοφία),字面意义是“爱智慧”。[4][5][6]
美学研究美、艺术、品味,以及对个人性事实的创造,请参阅美学。
知识论研究知识的来源、本质和有效性。知识论关切这些问题:
- 知识与信念有什么不同?
- 我们能够知道什么?
- 知识从哪里来?
- 有客观的知识吗?
伦理学 – 研究对错、善恶、好坏。
- 应用伦理学 – 对一些个人或社会生活中有关道德判断的特殊问题,从道德的立场,进行哲学的审视。因此它尝试使用哲学方法。在人类生活的很多方面,去辨认道德上正确的行为。
- 决策伦理学 – 关于决策过程的伦理学理论。
- 环境伦理 – 研究非人类世界的伦理问题,影响范围包括:环境法律、环境社会学、生态神学、生态经济学、经济学、环境地理学。
- 专业伦理 – 改进专业主义professionism的伦理学。
- 计算机伦理 – 处理计算机专业的人应该如何做出关于专业和社会行为的问题。
- 人工智能伦理 – 特别针对机器人和其他人工智能的生物。
- 研究 – 基本性的伦理原则的应用,在包括科学研究之内的很多方面都起着作用。
- 生物伦理学 – 研究格外有争议的伦理问题。因为生物和医药学的进步,新的情景和可能性出现,这些伦理问题因而应当得到重视。
- 商业伦理 – 基于个人发展自己,在商业环境上的道德考量。
- 组织伦理 – 组织之间的伦理学。
- 社会伦理 – 国家间以及全球的伦理。
- 描述伦理学 – 研究人关于道德性的信念。
- 规范伦理学 – 规范人们应该怎么行动,是它的研究对象。
- 元伦理学 – 寻求理解伦理学性质、陈述、态度、判断的本质。
逻辑学 – 系统研究有效推理和理性的学问,参见逻辑学。
形而上学 – 尝试回答:根本上有什么存在?是什么样的?参见形而上学。
- 本体论 – 研究自然、变化、存在、实在性,以及存在者的范畴的本质,和它们间的关系。
- 心灵哲学 – 研究心灵、精神状态、精神功能、精神性质、意识的本质,以及它们与物理的物体,尤其是大脑之间的关系。
- 时空哲学 – 关于本体论、认识论、时空的特点等。
- 行动理论、行动哲学
语言哲学
- 指称的因果理论
- 意义对比理论
- 对比主义
- 因袭主义
- 克拉蒂卢斯主义
- 解构主义
- 名称的摹状词理论
- 直接指称理论
- 戏剧主义
- 表现主义
- 语言决定论
- 逻辑原子主义
- 逻辑实证主义
- 指称理论
- 唯名论
- 非认知主义
- Phallogocentrism
- Quietism
- 相关性理论
- 语义外在主义
- 语义全体主义
- 结构主义
- Supposition theory
- Symbiosism
- Theological noncognitivism
- 摹状词理论
- Verification theory
- Encyclopedia of Philosophy – one of the major English encyclopedias of philosophy. The second edition, edited by Donald M. Borchert, was published in ten volumes in 2006 by Thomson Gale. Volumes 1–9 contain alphabetically ordered articles.
- 互联网哲学百科全书 – free online encyclopedia on philosophical topics and philosophers founded by James Fieser in 1995. The current general editors are James Fieser (Professor of Philosophy at the University of Tennessee at Martin) and Bradley Dowden (Professor of Philosophy at California State University, Sacramento). The staff also includes numerous area editors as well as volunteers.
- Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy – encyclopedia of philosophy edited by Edward Craig that was first published by Routledge in 1998 (ISBN 978-0415073103). Originally published in both 10 volumes of print and as a CD-ROM, in 2002 it was made available online on a subscription basis. The online version is regularly updated with new articles and revisions to existing articles. It has 1,300 contributors providing over 2,000 scholarly articles.
- 史丹佛哲学百科全书 – 同行审查,原创论文,互联网用户免费阅读。每篇文章都是此领域的专家所作。
- Outline of philosophy of artificial intelligence
- List of important publications in philosophy
- List of philosophy awards
- Index of philosophy
- Index of philosophy of science articles
- Unsolved problems in philosophy
Jenny Teichmann and Katherine C. Evans, Philosophy: A Beginner's Guide (Blackwell Publishing, 1999), p. 1: "Philosophy is a study of problems which are ultimate, abstract and very general. These problems are concerned with the nature of existence, knowledge, morality, reason and human purpose."
A.C. Grayling, Philosophy 1: A Guide through the Subject (Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 1: "The aim of philosophical inquiry is to gain insight into questions about knowledge, truth, reason, reality, meaning, mind, and value."
Anthony Quinton, in T. Honderich (ed.), The Oxford Companion to Philosophy (Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 666: "Philosophy is rationally critical thinking, of a more or less systematic kind about the general nature of the world (metaphysics or theory of existence), the justification of belief (epistemology or theory of knowledge), and the conduct of life (ethics or theory of value). Each of the three elements in this list has a non-philosophical counterpart, from which it is distinguished by its explicitly rational and critical way of proceeding and by its systematic nature. Everyone has some general conception of the nature of the world in which they live and of their place in it. Metaphysics replaces the unargued assumptions embodied in such a conception with a rational and organized body of beliefs about the world as a whole. Everyone has occasion to doubt and question beliefs, their own or those of others, with more or less success and without any theory of what they are doing. Epistemology seeks by argument to make explicit the rules of correct belief formation. Everyone governs their conduct by directing it to desired or valued ends. Ethics, or moral philosophy, in its most inclusive sense, seeks to articulate, in rationally systematic form, the rules or principles involved."
The definition of philosophy is: "1.orig., love of, or the search for, wisdom or knowledge 2.theory or logical analysis of the principles underlying conduct, thought, knowledge, and the nature of the universe". Webster's New World Dictionary Second College.