被征服地區的人民改說拉丁語,使得拉丁語在被征服地區紮根,[15]沒有任何法律條文強制推行拉丁語。[16]聖奧古斯丁認為,羅馬人喜歡通過社會契約(per pacem societatis)推行拉丁語。[17]這種語言政策與亞歷山大大帝的截然相反,他想通過設為官方語言將古希臘語推行至整個帝國。[18]會說拉丁語不是獲得羅馬公民身份的必要條件,也沒有國立學校將其作為教育媒介的特權:流利的拉丁語是因為其「高度的文化、政治、法律、社會和經濟價值」才受到青睞的。[19]
布匿語由社會精英使用:塞普蒂米烏斯·塞維魯(193–211在位)生在大萊普提斯,通曉布匿語、拉丁語、希臘語,而他的妹妹據說壓根不懂拉丁語。[71]北非的奧古斯丁多次提到布匿語:他觀察到它與希伯來語、敘利亞語有關。他對布匿語的了解幫他從《聖經》中找出音譯的閃米特語單詞。ref>Jongeling and Kerr, Late Punic Epigraphy, p. 4.</ref>
Bruno Rochette, "Language Policies in the Roman Republic and Empire," translated by James Clackson, in A Companion to the Latin Language (Blackwell, 2011), p. 560.
Alex Mullen, "Introduction: Multiple Languages, Multiple Identities," in Multilingualism in the Graeco-Roman Worlds (Cambridge University Press, 2012), p. 28.
Virgil, Aeneid 12.834 and 837; Rochette, "Language Policies in the Roman Republic and Empire," pp. 549, 563; Adams, "Romanitas and the Latin Language," p. 184.
Rochette, "Language Policies in the Roman Republic and Empire," p. 549; Charles Freeman, The Greek Achievement: The Foundation of the Western World (New York: Penguin, 1999), pp. 389–433.
William V. Harris, Ancient Literacy (Harvard University Press, 1989), p. 5; William A. Johnson, Ancient Literacies: The Culture of Reading in Greece and Rome (Oxford University Press, 2009), pp. 3–4, especially note 5; T.J. Kraus, "(Il)literacy in Non-Literary Papyri from Graeco-Roman Egypt: Further Aspects of the Educational Ideal in Ancient Literary Sources and Modern Times," Mnemosyme 53.3 (2000), p. 325; Marietta Horster, "Primary Education," in The Oxford Handbook of Social Relations in the Roman World, pp. 89, 97–98.
Christian Laes, Children in the Roman Empire: Outsiders Within (Cambridge University Press, 2011, originally published in Dutch 2006), p. 108; Horster, "Primary Education," in The Oxford Handbook of Social Relations in the Roman World, p. 89.
Ando, Imperial Ideology and Provincial Loyalty in the Roman Empire, p. 101; Kraus, "(Il)literacy in Non-Literary Papyri from Graeco-Roman Egypt," pp. 325–327.
Susan P. Mattern, Rome and the Enemy: Imperial Strategy in the Principate (University of California Press, 1999), p. 197; Teresa Morgan, Literate Education in the Hellenistic and Roman Worlds (Cambridge University Press, 1998, 2000), pp. 1–2 et passim; Greg Woolf, "Literacy or Literacies in Rome?" in Ancient Literacies, p. 46ff.; Horster, "Primary Education," in The Oxford Handbook of Social Relations in the Roman World, p. 97. Ando poses the question as "what good would 'posted edicts' do in a world of low literacy?' in Imperial Ideology and Provincial Loyalty in the Roman Empire, p. 101.
Rochette, "Language Policies in the Roman Republic and Empire," p. 553; Lee I. Levine, Jerusalem: Portrait of the City in the Second Temple Period (538 B.C.E. – 70 C.E.) (Jewish Publication Society, 2002), p. 154.
Richard Miles, "Communicating Culture, Identity, and Power," in Experiencing Rome: Culture, Identity and Power in the Roman Empire (Routledge, 2000), pp. 59–60.
Edwards et al., introduction to Apologetics in the Roman Empire, p. 7; Matthew W. Dickie, "Lucian's Gods: Lucian's Understanding of the Divine," in The Gods of Ancient Greece: Identifies and Transformations (Edinburgh University Press, 2010), p. 350.
Mark Sheridan, From the Nile to the Rhone and Beyond: Studies in Early Monastic Literature and Scriptural Interpretation (Studia Anselmiana, 2012), p. 225.
Maged S.A. Mikhail, "An Historical Definition for the 'Coptic Period'," in Coptic Studies on the Threshold of a New Millennium. Proceedings of the Seventh International Congress of Coptic Studies Leiden 2000 (Peeters, 2004), vol. 2, p. 972.
Andrew Wilson, "Neo-Punic and Latin Inscriptions in Roman North Africa: Function and Display," in Multilingualism in the Graeco-Roman Worlds, pp. 266–268.
Karel Jongeling and Robert M. Kerr, Late Punic Epigraphy (Mohr Siebeck, 2005), p. 4; Wilson, "Neo-Punic and Latin Inscriptions in Roman North Africa," p. 305.
Fiona A. Rose, "Text and Image in Celtiberia: The Adoption and Adaptation of Written Language into Indigenous Visual Vocabulary," Oxford Journal of Archaeology 22.2 (2003), p. 155.
Rose, "Text and Image in Celtiberia," p. 159; Leonard A. Curchin, The Romanization of Central Spain: Complexity, Diversity and Change in a Provincial Hinterland (Routledge, 2004), p. 120.
Irenaeus, Against Heresies I, preface; Pierre-Yves Lambert, La langue gauloise: description linguistique, commentaire d'inscriptions choisies (Editions Errance, 2003), p. 10.
Laurence Hélix. Histoire de la langue française. Ellipses Edition Marketing S.A. : 7. ISBN 978-2-7298-6470-5. 高盧語的衰落和消失不僅可以用具體的文化習俗來解釋:當凱撒領導著羅馬人在公元前1世紀入侵高盧時,高盧逐漸變得深刻地羅馬化。在將近500年的時間裡,即著名的高盧-羅馬時期,高盧語和拉丁語共存;甚至在6世紀,圖爾的格雷戈里的證詞也證明了高盧語的存在。
Latin Anthology 285 (= 279 in the edition of Shackleton Bailey): Inter 'eils' Goticum 'scapia matzia ia drincan' / non audet quisquam dignos edicere versus ;Adams, Bilingualism and the Latin Language, p. 275.
Kalle Korhonen, "Sicily in the Roman Imperial Period," in Language and Linguistic Contact in Ancient Sicily (Cambridge University Press, 2012), p. 332.
Rochette, "Language Policies in the Roman Republic and Empire," p. 550; Stefan Zimmer, "Indo-European," in Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia (ABC-Clio, 2006), p. 961; Leonard A. Curchin, "Literacy in the Roman Provinces: Qualitative and Quantitative Data from Central Spain," American Journal of Philology 116.3 (1995), p. 464.
Varro as quoted by Isidore of Seville, Origines 15.1.63, trilingues quod et graece loquantur et latine et gallice; Edgar C. Polomé, "The Linguistic Situation in the Western Provinces of the Roman Empire," Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt II (De Gruyter, 1983), p. 527; Philip Freeman, Ireland and the Classical World (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2001), p. 15.
Ausonius, Epicedion in patrem 9–10 (a first-person poem written in the voice of his father); J.N. Adams, Bilingualism and the Latin Language (Cambridge University Press, 2003), pp. 356–357, especially note 109, citing R.P.H. Green, The Works of Ausonius (Oxford: Clarendon Press, p. 1991), p. 276 on the view that Gaulish was the native language of Iulius Ausonius. Adams is inclined to believe that he simply spoke Latin with a Gaulish accent. See also Mullen, Southern Gaul and the Mediterranean, p. 269 (note 19).
Clackson and Horrocks, The Blackwell History of the Latin Language, pp. 86–87; Millar, "Local Cultures in the Roman Empire," pp. 128–129, expressing skepticism about identifying the non-Punic languages of North Africa as "Berber".
Simon Price, "Latin Christian Apologetics: Minucius Felix, Tertullian, and Cyprian," in Apologetics in the Roman Empire: Pagans, Jews, and Christians (Oxford University Press, 1999), p. 103.
Robin Margaret Jensen, Understanding Christian Art (Routledge, 2000), p. 51; Alison E. Cooley, The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy (Cambridge University Press, 2012), p. 233.
Alderik Bloom, "Linguae sacrae in Ancient and Medieval Sources: An Anthropological Approach to Ritual Language," in Multilingualism in the Graeco-Roman Worlds, p. 124, prefers "ritual" to the problematic distinction between "religion" and "magic" in antiquity.
Hans Dieter Betz, "Introduction to the Greek Magical Papyri," The Greek Magical Papyri in Translation, Including the Demotic Spells (University of Chicago Press, 1986, 1996), p. xli.
Betz, introduction to "The Greek Magical Papyri," pp. xlv–xlvi; Janet H. Johnson, "Introduction to the Demotic Magical Papyri," p. lv in the same volume (page numbering of the two introductions is independent, not sequential).
In addition to the PGM, charms are common in texts from late antiquity, including the collected pharmacological recipes of Marcellus of Bordeaux; Pseudo-Apuleius, Herbarius; Sextus Placitus, Liber medicinae ex animalibus; Hippiatrica; Physica Plinii; Pseudo-Dioscurides, De herbis feminis; and the Anglo-Saxon Lacnunga. See Blom, "Linguae sacrae," p. 127, note 22. Inscriptions are found on amulets, intaglio gems, incantation bowls, curse tablets, and lamellae (metal-leaf tablets).
Fritz Graf, 「Prayer in Magic and Religious Ritual,」 in Magika Hiera: Ancient Greek Magic and Religion, (Oxford University Press, 1991), p. 191, and Roy Kotansky, 「Incantations and Prayers for Salvation on Inscribed Greek Amulets,」 also in Magika Hiera, p. 132, note 60, both on Egyptian; John G. Gager, 「A New Translation of Ancient Greek and Demotic Papyri, Sometimes Called Magical,」 Journal of Religion 67 (1987), p. 83 on Coptic.
Gager, 「A New Translation of Ancient Greek and Demotic Papyri,", p. 83; Paul Mirecki, 「The Coptic Wizard's Hoard,」 Harvard Theological Review 87 (1994), pp. 457–458.
Lambert, La langue gauloise, pp. 176–178, particularly on a 3rd–4th century tablet from the Gallo-Roman town Rom that may be Celtic in a Latin context.
Matthias Klinghardt, 「Prayer Formularies for Public Recitation: Their Use and Function in Ancient Religion,」 Numen 46 (1999), p. 50; Hans Dieter Betz, "Secrecy in the Greek Magical Papyri," in Secrecy and Concealment: Studies in the History of Mediterranean and Near Eastern Religions (Leiden 1995), 153–175, especially 158–164; Brashear, 「The Greek Magical Papyri," p. 3434.
Richard Janko, 「Forgetfulness in the Golden Tablets of Memory,」 Classical Quarterly 34 (1984), pp. 89–100 on problems of oral transcription; Graf, 「Prayer in Magic and Religious Ritual,」 p. 191; Betz, "The Greek Magical Papyri," p. xlvi; Breshear, "The Greek Magical Papyri," pp. 3434–3438.
L.C. Youtie, "A Medical Prescription for Eye-salve," ZPE 23 (1976), pp. 121–29; Collingwood and Wright, 「Roman Inscriptions of Britain I」 (Oxford 1965), p. 144, no. 436.
Jerome, Vita Hilarionis 13.7: videres de ore barbaro, et qui Francam tantum et Latinam linguam noverat, Syra ad purum verba resonare: Adams, Bilingualism and the Latin Language, p. 275.
Adolf Berg, Encyclopedic Dictionary of Roman Law (American Philosophical Society, 1980, 1991), pp. 470–471. In late antiquity, fideicommissa could be legally binding as well.
Françoise Waquet, Latin, Or, The Empire of the Sign: From the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Century (Verso, 2001; originally published 1998 in French), pp. 1–2; Kristian Jensen, "The Humanist Reform of Latin and Latin Teaching," in The Cambridge Companion to Renaissance Humanism (Cambridge University Press, 1996, 2003), pp. 63–64.
Adams, "Romanitas and the Latin Language," p. 199; Treadgold, A History of the Byzantine State and Society, pp. 5, 7.
參考文獻
參考書目
Adams, J.N. Bilingualism and the Latin Language. Cambridge University Press, 2003.
Anderson, Graham The Second Sophistic: A Cultural Phenomenon in the Roman Empire. Routledge, 1993.
Ando, Clifford. Imperial Ideology and Provincial Loyalty in the Roman Empire. University of California Press, 2000.
Clackson, James; Horrocks, Geoffrey. The Blackwell History of the Latin Language. Blackwell, 2007, 2011.
Goodman, Martin Welsh. Mission and Conversion: Proselytizing in the Religious History of the Roman Empire. Oxford University Press, 1994.
Herman, József. Vulgar Latin. Translated by Roger Wright, based on the original 1975 publication in French. Pennsylvania State University Press, 2000.
Millar, Fergus. A Greek Roman Empire: Power and Belief under Theodosius II (408–450). University of California Press, 2006.
Mullen, Alex. Southern Gaul and the Mediterranean: Multilingualism and Multiple Identities in the Iron Age and Roman Periods. Cambridge University Press, 2013.
Treadgold, Warren. A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford University Press, 1997.
Apologetics in the Roman Empire: Pagans, Jews, and Christians. Edited by Mark Edwards, Martin Goodman, and Simon Price, with Christopher Rowland. Oxford University Press, 1999.
A Companion to the Latin Language. Edited by James Clackson. Blackwell, 2011.
Multilingualism in the Graeco-Roman Worlds. Edited by Alex Mullen. Cambridge University Press, 2012.
The Oxford Handbook of the Literatures of the Roman Empire. Edited by Daniel L. Selden and Phiroze Vasunia. Oxford University Press (most of the chapters are available online here (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)).
參考文章
Adams, J.N. "Romanitas and the Latin Language." Classical Quarterly 53.1 (2003) 184–205.
Moatti, Claudia. "Translation, Migration, and Communication in the Roman Empire: Three Aspects of Movement in History." Classical Antiquity 25.1 (2006) 109–140.
Rance, Philip. "The De Militari Scientia or Müller Fragment as a Philological Resource. Latin in the East Roman Army and Two New Loanwords in Greek: palmarium and *recala." Glotta 86 (2010) 63–92.