1967年,社會學家羅伯特·貝拉撰寫《美國的公民宗教》(Civil Religion in America)一文,這一術語的現今定義就此明確。貝拉稱美國人接受了一種共有的公民宗教,有着特有的信念、價值、儀式和節日,而獨立於其信奉的宗教[1]。貝拉的文章後來成為許多宗教社會學會議的討論焦點,亦產生許多關於這一主題的論著。到1976年的美國建國二百周年之際,關於「美國公民宗教」的討論頗為火熱,達至巔峰[2][1][3][4][5]。
理論
貝拉認為,美國人將美國憲法、美國獨立宣言和美國權利法案視為其「公民信仰」或「政治信仰」的基石。政治社會學家安東尼·斯奎爾斯(Anthony Squiers)稱,這三份文檔近乎美國公民宗教的教條,是美國「神聖政治」的權威象徵。斯奎爾斯將「神聖政治」(politics of the sacred)定義為一種辨認對方是否符合公民宗教的神聖性的企圖,是一場根據事物「神聖性」而辨別它能與不能、應該還是不應該得到社群的接納容忍的爭鬥[6]:20。
關於美國公民宗教的研究大多遵循貝拉和涂爾幹的闡釋[13]。此外,主要的研究依據還包括,約翰·杜威在1934年關於「共同信仰」(common faith)的論述;社會學家羅賓·墨菲·威廉斯(英語:Robin Murphy Williams)所著之《美國社會:社會學解釋》(American Society: A Sociological Interpretation,1951)中關於「共同宗教」的描述;勞埃德·沃納(英語:Lloyd Warner)所著之《揚基城》(Yankee City, 1953 [1974])中關於亡兵紀念日紀念活動的分析;歷史學家馬丁·馬蒂(英語:Martin Marty)闡述的「一般的宗教」(religion in general,1959);理論家威爾·赫伯格(英語:Will Herberg)所述之美國生活方式(1960, 1974);西德尼·米德(英語:Sidney Mead)所述之「共和國的宗教」(religion of the Republic);以及英國作家卻斯特頓所言「美國是唯一基於信條建立的國家」,他還發明了美國是「有着教會的靈魂的國家」(a nation with a soul of a church)的說法[4][5]。
查爾斯·卡爾霍恩(英語:Charles W. Calhoun)稱在19世紀80年代,本傑明·哈里森講話中的修辭風格帶有美國公民宗教的色彩,可謂熟稔運用公民信仰思想的總統人選。哈里森在社會和經濟事務中運用基督教觀念,為社會福音、進步主義運動鋪平道路,也讓日後的社會開始認可政府出面解決社會問題的行為[24]。
格蕾絲·高(Grace Y. Kao)和傑羅姆·科普爾斯基(Jerome E. Copulsky)稱,公民宗教概念流行,引起公眾對於憲法中效忠宣誓的討論。效忠宣誓的作用體現四個層面:保護主義、多元主義、教士層面和先知層面。爭論並不是在信上帝與不信上帝者之間展開,而是關乎公民宗教的地位展開[34]。
馬修·克勞德(Matthew W. Cloud)回顧了1787年以來的各種美國政治誓言,追尋當時民族團結和宗教信念二者的對立局面。他回顧美國最高法院有關效忠宣誓的主要判例,如矛盾的邁納斯維爾小學訴戈比蒂斯案(英語:Minersville School District v. Gobitis)(1940)和西弗吉尼亞州訴巴內特案(英語:West Virginia v. Barnette)(1943)兩案。前者判定公立學校可以強迫學生向美國國旗敬禮並背誦效忠誓詞,而後者則推翻前案判決,裁定根據第一修正案,學生可免於強制性的宣誓效忠。這一案件主要和耶和華見證人信徒有關,這一教派禁止教徒崇拜政治象徵物。1954年,效忠誓詞中加入了「上帝之下的國度」(one Nation under God)的字眼,克勞德認為這是出於反共立場[35]。
埃里克·烏德拉姆(Eric Woodrum)和阿諾德·貝爾(Arnold Bell)稱,非裔美國人的公民宗教思想不如白人深重,公民宗教的前導因素對於黑人和白人有着不同影響。例如,傳統宗教對於白人來說是正面的,而對於黑人來說則是負面影響。烏德拉姆和貝爾認為,這種差別是非裔美國人的宗教民族起源論及分裂主義思想的產物[39]。費德烈·道格拉斯在其1852年「對於奴隸來說美國獨立日是什麼」(What to the Slave Is the Fourth of July?)的演講中,公民宗教對於黑人群體來說較為複雜,「日光帶給你生命和療愈,卻帶給我斑紋和死亡。這獨立日屬於你們,不屬於我。你們可以慶祝,我則必須哀悼[40][41]。」
制憲者對於憲法的看法也有所不同。華盛頓在告別演說中懇請後世「維護憲法神聖」;他在給占士·麥迪遜的回信中稱,即使是最明智而自由的政府,在社會競逐對抗之下也需要促成公民對憲法的崇敬,以維持必需的穩定公民認知。另一邊,反對「憲法崇拜」的傳統也頗為深厚。湯馬士·傑佛遜承認憲法崇拜的存在,「有些人認為憲法無比神聖,將之看作不可觸碰的約櫃」,但也堅信憲法是不完美的,應堅信「制度必須進步」(institutions must advance also)[48]。
湯馬士·格雷(Thomas Grey)在其《作為經文的憲法》(The Constitution as scripture)一文中強調美國信條即是美國民族的唯一紐帶和信仰依託,他將美國同那些需要依靠上天指定權威君主,以天命統治而凝聚在一起的傳統社會作對比,按照憲法的第六條第三款,即「應宣誓或作代誓宣言擁護本憲法;決不得以宗教信仰作為擔任合眾國屬下任何官職或公職的必要資格」,兩種社會形成鮮明對比。這不僅是對於過往英國政教不分傳統的突破,同樣是對於當時美國各州的情況來說的理念上的大突破[54]。
Squiers, Anthony. The Politics of the Sacred in America: The Role of Civil Religion in Political Practice. New York: Springer International Publishing. 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-68870-1. OCLC 1105449948.
Jürgen Heideking, "The federal processions of 1788 and the origins of American civil religion." Soundings(英語:Soundings (journal)) (1994): 367–87. in JSTOR (頁面存檔備份,存於互聯網檔案館)
Len Travers, "Hurrah for the Fourth: Patriotism, Politics, and Independence Day in Federalist Boston, 1783–1818." Essex Institute(英語:Essex Institute) Historical Collections 125: 129–61.
James David Fairbanks, "The Priestly Functions of the Presidency: A Discussion of the Literature on Civil Religion and Its Implications for the Study of Presidential Leadership," Presidential Studies Quarterly (1981) 11:214–32.
Robert D. Linder, "Universal pastor: President Bill Clinton's civil religion," Journal of Church and State(英語:Journal of Church and State), Autumn 1996, 38#4 pp 733–49
Charles W. Calhoun, "Civil religion and the gilded age presidency: The case of Benjamin Harrison," Presidential Studies Quarterly, Fall 1993, 23#4 pp. 651–67
Manfred Brocker, "Civil Religion, Fundamentalism, and the Politics and Policies of George W. Bush," Journal of Political Science, Jan 2004, Vol. 32, pp. 95–124
Stefanie. Hammer, "The role of narrative in political campaigning: An analysis of speeches by Barack Obama," National Identities(英語:National Identities), Sept 2010, 12#3, pp. 269–90
Kelly Denton-Borhaug, "Sharing Peace: Mennonites and Catholics in Conversation", Gerald W. Schlabach and Margaret Pfeil (eds.), American Catholic Studies 125#2 (2014): 82–83.
Grace Y. Kao and Jerome E. Copulsky, "The Pledge of Allegiance and the Meanings and Limits of Civil Religion," Journal of the American Academy of Religion, March 2007, 75#1, pp. 121–49 doi:10.1093/jaarel/lfl065
Matthew W. Cloud, "'One Nation, Under God': Tolerable Acknowledgement of Religion or Unconstitutional Cold War Propaganda Cloaked in American Civil Religion?" Journal of Church and State, Spring 2004, 46#2 pp. 311–40, online (頁面存檔備份,存於互聯網檔案館)
Charles Reagan Wilson, "The Religion of the Lost Cause: Ritual and the Organization of the Southern Civil Religion, 1865–1920," Journal of Southern History, May 1980, 46#2 pp. 219–38
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Luis D. León, "Cesar Chavez in American Religious Politics: Mapping the New Global Spiritual Line." American Quarterly(英語:American Quarterly), Sep 2007, 59#3 pp. 857–81, doi:10.1353/aq.2007.0060
Bellah, Robert Neelly. Civil Religion in America. Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Winter 1967, 96 (1): 1–21. (原始內容存檔於2005-03-06). From the issue entitled Religion in America.
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Jewett, Robert; John Shelton Lawrence. Captain America and the Crusade Against Evil: The Dilemma of Zealous Nationalism. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. 2004. ISBN 978-0-8028-2859-0. Page 328 specifically talks about American civil religion, referencing Jones's book, American Civil Religion.
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McCarthy, Rockne. "Civil Religion in Early America," Fides et Historia(英語:Fides et Historia), Summer 1975, 8#1 pp 20–40, covers 1800-1900
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Polk, Andrew R. Faith in Freedom: Propaganda, Presidential Politics, and the Making of an American Religion. Cornell University Press. 2021. ISBN 978-1-5017-5922-2(英語).
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歷史編纂學文獻
Fenn, Richard K. "The Relevance of Bellah's 'Civil Religion' Thesis to a Theory of Secularization," Social Science History(英語:Social Science History), Fall 1977, 1#4 pp 502–517
Lindner, Robert D. "Civil Religion in Historical Perspective: The Reality that Underlies the Concept," Journal of Church and State(英語:Journal of Church and State), Summer 1975, 17#3 pp 399–421, focus on European theorists
McDermott, Gerald Robert. "Civil Religion in the American Revolutionary Period: An Historiographic Analysis," Christian Scholar's Review, April 1989, 18#4 pp 346–362
Mathisen, James A.; Bellah, Robert N. "Twenty Years after Bellah: Whatever Happened to American Civil Religion?," Sociological Analysis, April 1989, 50#2, pp 129–146 online (頁面存檔備份,存於互聯網檔案館)
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