ರಸಾಯನಶಾಸ್ತ್ರದಲ್ಲಿ ನೊಬೆಲ್ ಪ್ರಶಸ್ತಿ

ರಸಾಯನಶಾಸ್ತ್ರಕ್ಕೆ ಪ್ರಶಸ್ತಿ

ರಸಾಯನಶಾಸ್ತ್ರದ ನೊಬೆಲ್ ಪ್ರಶಸ್ತಿಯು ವಾರ್ಷಿಕವಾಗಿ ರಸಾಯನಶಾಸ್ತ್ರದಲ್ಲಿ ಸಾಧನೆಗಳಿಗೆ ರಾಯಲ್ ಸ್ವೀಡಿಷ್ ಅಕ್ಯಾಡಮಿ ಆಫ್ ಸೈನ್ಸಸ್ ನೀಡುವ ಒಂದು ಪ್ರಶಸ್ತಿ. ಆಲ್ಫ್ರೆಡ್ ನೊಬೆಲ್ ಅವರು ೧೮೯೫ರಲ್ಲಿ ತಮ್ಮ ಉಯಿಲಿನ ಮೂಲಕ ಸ್ಥಾಪಿಸಿದ ೫ ನೊಬೆಲ್ ಪ್ರಶಸ್ತಿಗಳಲ್ಲಿ ಇದೂ ಒಂದು.

೨೦೧೬ ನೊಬೆಲ್ ಪ್ರಶಸ್ತಿ

• ಸ್ಟಾಕ್‌ಹೋಮ್‌ : ಅಣು ಚಾಲಿತ ಯಂತ್ರಗಳನ್ನು (ಮಾಲಿಕ್ಯುಲರ್‌ ಮೆಷಿನ್‌) ಅಭಿವೃದ್ಧಿ ಪಡಿಸಿದ ಫ್ರಾನ್ಸ್‌ನ ಜೀನ್‌ ಪಿರ್ರೆ ಸುವಾಜ್‌, ಬ್ರಿಟನ್ನಿನ ಜೆ.ಫ್ರೇಸರ್‌ ಸ್ಟೊಡಾರ್ಟ್‌ ಮತ್ತು ನೆದರ್‌ಲ್ಯಾಂಡ್ಸ್‌ನ ಬರ್ನಾರ್ಡ್‌ ಫೆರಿಂಗಾ ಅವರು ಈ ಸಾಲಿನ ರಸಾಯನ ವಿಜ್ಞಾನ ನೊಬೆಲ್‌ ಪ್ರಶಸ್ತಿಗೆ ಭಾಜನರಾಗಿದ್ದಾರೆ. ಅಣುಗಳಿಂದ ರೂಪಿಸಿರುವ ಈ ಸಾಧನಗಳು ಜಗತ್ತಿನ ಅತ್ಯಂತ ಪುಟ್ಟ ಯಂತ್ರಗಳಾಗಿವೆ.

• ‘ನಿಯಂತ್ರಿತ ಚಲನೆಗಳನ್ನು ಹೊಂದಿರುವ ಅಣುಗಳನ್ನು ಈ ಮೂವರು ವಿಜ್ಞಾನಿಗಳು ಅಭಿವೃದ್ಧಿ ಪಡಿಸಿದ್ದಾರೆ. ಶಕ್ತಿ ತುಂಬಿದಾಗ ಈ ಯಂತ್ರಗಳು ನಿರ್ದಿಷ್ಟ ಕೆಲಸಗಳನ್ನು ಮಾಡಬಲ್ಲವು’ ಎಂದು ಪ್ರಶಸ್ತಿಯ ಆಯ್ಕೆಗಾರರ ಮಂಡಳಿ ಹೇಳಿದೆ.

ಅಣು ಯಂತ್ರದ ಅಭಿವೃದ್ಧಿ ಪಥ...

ಮೊದಲ ಘಟ್ಟ

• ಫ್ರಾನ್ಸ್‌ನ ಜೀನ್‌ ಪಿರ್ರೆ ಸುವಾಜ್‌ 1983ರಲ್ಲಿ ಅಣು ಯಂತ್ರದ ಅಭಿವೃದ್ಧಿಗೆ ಮುನ್ನುಡಿ ಬರೆದಿದ್ದರು. ಬಳೆ ಅಥವಾ ಉಂಗುರ ಆಕಾರದ ಎರಡು ಅಣುಗಳನ್ನು ಪರಸ್ಪರ ಕೂಡಿಸುವ ಮೂಲಕ ಅಣುಗಳ ಸರಪಣಿ ಸೃಷ್ಟಿಸುವಲ್ಲಿ ಯಶ ಕಂಡಿದ್ದರು. ಅಣು ಯಂತ್ರಗಳ ಅಭಿವೃದ್ಧಿಯಲ್ಲಿ ಇದು ಮೊದಲ ಹಂತ ಎಂದು ಬಣ್ಣಿಸಲಾಗಿದೆ.

• ‘ಯಂತ್ರವು ಕೆಲಸ ಮಾಡಬೇಕಾದರೆ, ಪರಸ್ಪರ ಚಲಿಸುವಂತಹ ಭಾಗಗಳನ್ನು ಅವು ಹೊಂದಿರಬೇಕಾಗುತ್ತದೆ. ಸುವಾಜ್‌ ಅವರು ಸಂಪರ್ಕ ಬೆಸೆದ ಎರಡು ಅಣು ಬಳೆಗಳು ಈ ಅಗತ್ಯವನ್ನು ಪೂರೈಸಿವೆ’ ಎಂದು ನೊಬೆಲ್‌ ಪ್ರಶಸ್ತಿ ತೀರ್ಪುದಾರರ ಮಂಡಳಿ ಹೇಳಿದೆ.

ಎರಡನೇ ಘಟ್ಟ

• 1991ರಲ್ಲಿ ಜೆ.ಫ್ರೇಸರ್‌ ಸ್ಟೊಡಾರ್ಟ್‌ ಅವರು ಅಣು ಯಂತ್ರ ಅಭಿವೃದ್ಧಿಯ ಎರಡನೇ ಹಂತವನ್ನು ಕೈಗೆತ್ತಿಕೊಂಡಿದ್ದರು. ಅಣು ಬಳೆಗಳನ್ನು ತೆಳ್ಳನೆಯ ಅಣು ದಂಡಕ್ಕೆ (ಆ್ಯಕ್ಸಲ್‌) ಅವರು ಪೋಣಿಸಿದ್ದರು. ಅಲ್ಲದೇ ಈ ದಂಡದ ಜೊತೆಗೆ ಅಣು ಬಳೆಗಳೂ ಚಲಿಸುತ್ತವೆ ಎಂಬುದನ್ನು ಪ್ರಾತ್ಯಕ್ಷಿಕೆ ಮೂಲಕ ತೋರಿಸಿದ್ದರು. ಸ್ಟೊಡಾರ್ಡ್‌ ಅವರು ಅಣುಗಳ ಲಿಫ್ಟ್‌, ಅಣು ಆಧಾರಿತ ಕಂಪ್ಯೂಟರ್‌ ಚಿಪ್‌ಗಳನ್ನು ಈಗಾಗಲೇ ಅಭಿವೃದ್ಧಿ ಪಡಿಸಿದ್ದಾರೆ.

ಮೂರನೇ ಘಟ್ಟ

• ಅಂತಿಮವಾಗಿ ಅಣು ಯಂತ್ರವನ್ನು ಅಭಿವೃದ್ಧಿ ಪಡಿಸಿದ್ದು ಬರ್ನಾರ್ಡ್‌ ಫೆರಿಂಗಾ. ಒಂದೇ ದಿಕ್ಕಿನಲ್ಲಿ ನಿರಂತರವಾಗಿ ತಿರುಗುವ ಅಣು ಬ್ಲೇಡ್‌ ರೂಪಿಸಲು 1999ರಲ್ಲಿ ಅವರು ಯಶಸ್ವಿಯಾಗಿದ್ದರು. ಅಣು ಯಂತ್ರಗಳನ್ನು ಬಳಸಿ ನ್ಯಾನೊ ಕಾರುಗಳನ್ನು ರೂಪಿಸಿದ ಹೆಗ್ಗಳಿಕೆಯೂ ಫೆರಿಂಗಾ ಅವರಿಗಿದೆ.^[೧]

ಪುರಸ್ಕೃತರು

ವರ್ಷ	ಪುರಸ್ಕೃತರು[A]		ದೇಶ[B]	ಕಾರಣ[C]
1901		ಜಾಕೊಬಸ್ ಹೆನ್ರಿಕಸ್ ವಾಂಟ್ ಹೊಫ್	ನೆದರ್‌ಲ್ಯಾಂಡ್ಸ್	"[for his] discovery of the laws of chemical dynamics and osmotic pressure in solutions"[೨]
1902		ಹೆರ್ಮನ್ ಎಮಿಲ್ ಫಿಷರ್	ಜರ್ಮನಿ	"[for] his work on sugar and purine syntheses"[೩]
1903		ಸ್ವಾಂಟೆ ಅರ್ಹೇನಿಯಸ್	ಸ್ವೀಡನ್	"[for] his electrolytic theory of dissociation"[೪]
1904		ಸರ್ ವಿಲಿಯಮ್ ರಾಮ್ಸೆ	ಯುನೈಟೆಡ್ ಕಿಂಗ್‌ಡಮ್	"[for his] discovery of the inert gaseous elements in air, and his determination of their place in the periodic system"[೫]
1905		ಅಡಾಲ್ಫ್ ವಾನ್ ಬಾಯರ್	ಜರ್ಮನಿ	"[for] the advancement of organic chemistry and the chemical industry, through his work on organic dyes and hydroaromatic compounds"[೬]
1906		ಹೆನ್ರಿ ಮೊಯ್ಸಾನ್	ಫ್ರಾನ್ಸ್	"[for his] investigation and isolation of the element fluorine, and for [the] electric furnace called after him"[೭]
1907		ಎಡ್ವಾರ್ಡ್ ಬುಕ್ನರ್	ಜರ್ಮನಿ	"for his biochemical researches and his discovery of cell-free fermentation"[೮]
1908		ಅರ್ನೆಸ್ಟ್ ರುದರ್‌ಫೋರ್ಡ್	ಯುನೈಟೆಡ್ ಕಿಂಗ್‌ಡಮ್ ನ್ಯೂ ಜೀಲ್ಯಾಂಡ್	"for his investigations into the disintegration of the elements, and the chemistry of radioactive substances"[೯]
1909		ವಿಲ್ಹೆಲ್ಮ್ ಓಸ್ಟ್ವಾಲ್ಡ್	ಜರ್ಮನಿ	"[for] his work on catalysis and for his investigations into the fundamental principles governing chemical equilibria and rates of reaction"[೧೦]
1910		ಆಟ್ಟೊ ವಾಲ್ಲಾಚ್	ಜರ್ಮನಿ	"[for] his services to organic chemistry and the chemical industry by his pioneer work in the field of alicyclic compounds"[೧೧]
1911		ಮರಿ ಕ್ಯೂರಿ	ಪೋಲ್ಯಾಂಡ್	"[for] the discovery of the elements radium and polonium, by the isolation of radium and the study of the nature and compounds of this remarkable element"[೧೨]
1912		ವಿಕ್ಟರ್ ಗ್ರಿಗ್ನಾರ್ಡ್	ಫ್ರಾನ್ಸ್	"for the discovery of the [...] Grignard reagent"[೧೩]
		ಪಾಲ್ ಸಬಾಟಿಯರ್	ಫ್ರಾನ್ಸ್	"for his method of hydrogenating organic compounds in the presence of finely disintegrated metals"[೧೩]
1913		ಆಲ್ಫ್ರೆಡ್ ವೆರ್ನರ್	ಸ್ವಿಟ್ಜರ್‌ಲ್ಯಾಂಡ್	"[for] his work on the linkage of atoms in molecules [...] especially in inorganic chemistry"[೧೪]
1914		ಥೊಯೊಡೊರ್ ವಿಲಿಯಮ್ ರಿಚರ್ಡ್ಸ್	ಅಮೇರಿಕ ದೇಶ	"[for] his accurate determinations of the atomic weight of a large number of chemical elements"[೧೫]
1915		ರಿಚರ್ಡ್ ಮಾರ್ಟಿನ್ ವಿಸ್ಟಾಟ್ಟರ್	ಜರ್ಮನಿ	"for his researches on plant pigments, especially chlorophyll"[೧೬]
1916	Not awarded
1917	Not awarded
1918		ಫ್ರಿಟ್ಜ್ ಹೇಬರ್	ಜರ್ಮನಿ	"for the synthesis of ammonia from its elements"[೧೭]
1919	Not awarded
1920		ವಾಲ್ಥರ್ ಹರ್ಮನ್ ನರ್ಸ್ಟ್	ಜರ್ಮನಿ	"[for] his work in thermochemistry"[೧೮]
1921		ಫ್ರೆಡ್ರಿಕ್ ಸಾಡ್ಡಿ	ಯುನೈಟೆಡ್ ಕಿಂಗ್‌ಡಂ	"for his contributions to our knowledge of the chemistry of radioactive substances, and his investigations into the origin and nature of isotopes"[೧೯]
1922		ಫ್ರಾನ್ಸಿಸ್ ವಿಲಿಯಮ್ ಆಸ್ಟನ್	ಯುನೈಟೆಡ್ ಕಿಂಗ್‌ಡಂ	"for his discovery, by means of his mass spectrograph, of isotopes, in a large number of non-radioactive elements, and for his enunciation of the whole-number rule"[೨೦]
1923		ಫ್ರಿಟ್ಜ್ ಪ್ರೆಗ್ಲ್	ಆಸ್ಟ್ರಿಯ	"for his invention of the method of micro-analysis of organic substances"[೨೧]
1924	Not awarded
1925		ರಿಚರ್ಡ್ ಅಡಾಲ್ಫ್ ಸಿಗ್ಮಾಂಡಿ	ಜರ್ಮನಿ	"for his demonstration of the heterogeneous nature of colloid solutions and for the methods he used"[೨೨]
1926		ಥಿಯೊಡೋರ್ ಸ್ವೆಡ್ಬರ್ಗ್	ಸ್ವೀಡನ್	"for his work on disperse systems"[೨೩]
1927		ಹೆನ್ರಿಕ್ ಒಟ್ಟೊ ವೀಲಂಡ್	ಜರ್ಮನಿ	"for his investigations of the constitution of the bile acids and related substances"[೨೪]
1928		ಅಡಾಲ್ಫ್ ಒಟ್ಟೊ ರೀನ್ಹೋಲ್ಡ್ ವಿಂಡಾಸ್	ಜರ್ಮನಿ	"[for] his research into the constitution of the sterols and their connection with the vitamins"[೨೫]
1929		Arthur Harden	United Kingdom	"for their investigations on the fermentation of sugar and fermentative enzymes"[೨೬]
		Hans Karl August Simon von Euler-Chelpin	ಜರ್ಮನಿ
1930		Hans Fischer	ಜರ್ಮನಿ	"for his researches into the constitution of haemin and chlorophyll and especially for his synthesis of haemin"[೨೭]
1931		Carl Bosch	ಜರ್ಮನಿ	"[for] their contributions to the invention and development of chemical high pressure methods"[೨೮]
		Friedrich Bergius	ಜರ್ಮನಿ
1932		Irving Langmuir	United States	"for his discoveries and investigations in surface chemistry"[೨೯]
1933	Not awarded
1934		Harold Clayton Urey	United States	"for his discovery of heavy hydrogen"[೩೦]
1935		Frédéric Joliot	France	"[for] their synthesis of new radioactive elements"[೩೧]
		Irene Joliot-Curie	France
1936		Petrus (Peter) Josephus Wilhelmus Debye	the Netherlands	"[for his work on] molecular structure through his investigations on dipole moments and the diffraction of X-rays and electrons in gases"[೩೨]
1937		Walter Norman Haworth	United Kingdom	"for his investigations on carbohydrates and vitamin C"[೩೩]
		Paul Karrer	Switzerland	"for his investigations on carotenoids, flavins and vitamins A and B2"
1938		Richard Kuhn	ಜರ್ಮನಿ	"for his work on carotenoids and vitamins"[೩೪]
1939		Adolf Friedrich Johann Butenandt	ಜರ್ಮನಿ	"for his work on sex hormones"[೩೫]
		Leopold Ruzicka	Switzerland	"for his work on polymethylenes and higher terpenes"[೩೫]
1940	Not awarded
1941	Not awarded
1942	Not awarded
1943		George de Hevesy	Hungary	"for his work on the use of isotopes as tracers in the study of chemical processes"[೩೬]
1944		Otto Hahn	ಜರ್ಮನಿ	"for his discovery of the fission of heavy nuclei"[೩೭]
1945		Artturi Ilmari Virtanen	Finland	"for his research and inventions in agricultural and nutrition chemistry, especially for his fodder preservation method"[೩೮]
1946		James Batcheller Sumner	United States	"for his discovery that enzymes can be crystallized"[೩೯]
		John Howard Northrop	United States	"for their preparation of enzymes and virus proteins in a pure form"[೩೯]
		Wendell Meredith Stanley	United States
1947		Sir Robert Robinson	United Kingdom	"for his investigations on plant products of biological importance, especially the alkaloids"[೪೦]
1948		Arne Wilhelm Kaurin Tiselius	Sweden	"for his research on electrophoresis and adsorption analysis, especially for his discoveries concerning the complex nature of the serum proteins"[೪೧]
1949		William Francis Giauque	United States	"for his contributions in the field of chemical thermodynamics, particularly concerning the behaviour of substances at extremely low temperatures"[೪೨]
1950		Otto Paul Hermann Diels	Federal Republic of Germany	"for their discovery and development of the diene synthesis"[೪೩]
		Kurt Alder	Federal Republic of Germany
1951		Edwin Mattison McMillan	United States	"for their discoveries in the chemistry of transuranium elements"[೪೪]
		Glenn Theodore Seaborg	United States
1952		Archer John Porter Martin	United Kingdom	"for their invention of partition chromatography"[೪೫]
		Richard Laurence Millington Synge	United Kingdom
1953		Hermann Staudinger	Federal Republic of Germany	"for his discoveries in the field of macromolecular chemistry"[೪೬]
1954		Linus Carl Pauling	United States	"for his research into the nature of the chemical bond and its application to the elucidation of the structure of complex substances"[೪೭]
1955		Vincent du Vigneaud	United States	"for his work on biochemically important sulphur compounds, especially for the first synthesis of a polypeptide hormone"[೪೮]
1956		Sir Cyril Norman Hinshelwood	United Kingdom	"for their researches into the mechanism of chemical reactions"[೪೯]
		Nikolay Nikolaevich Semenov	USSR
1957		Lord (Alexander R.) Todd	United Kingdom	"for his work on nucleotides and nucleotide co-enzymes"[೫೦]
1958		Frederick Sanger	United Kingdom	"for his work on the structure of proteins, especially that of insulin"[೫೧]
1959		Jaroslav Heyrovský	Czechoslovakia	"for his discovery and development of the polarographic methods of analysis"[೫೨]
1960		Willard Frank Libby	United States	"for his method to use carbon-14 for age determination in archaeology, geology, geophysics, and other branches of science"[೫೩]
1961		Melvin Calvin	United States	"for his research on the carbon dioxide assimilation in plants"[೫೪]
1962		Max Ferdinand Perutz	United Kingdom	"for their studies of the structures of globular proteins"[೫೫]
		John Cowdery Kendrew	United Kingdom
1963		Karl Ziegler	Federal Republic of Germany	"for their discoveries in the field of the chemistry and technology of high polymers"[೫೬]
		Giulio Natta	Italy
1964		Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin	United Kingdom	"for her determinations by X-ray techniques of the structures of important biochemical substances"[೫೭]
1965		Robert Burns Woodward	United States	"for his outstanding achievements in the art of organic synthesis"[೫೮]
1966		Robert S. Mulliken	United States	"for his fundamental work concerning chemical bonds and the electronic structure of molecules by the molecular orbital method"[೫೯]
1967		Manfred Eigen	Federal Republic of Germany	"for their studies of extremely fast chemical reactions, effected by disturbing the equilibrium by means of very short pulses of energy"[೬೦]
		Ronald George Wreyford Norrish	United Kingdom
		George Porter	United Kingdom
1968		Lars Onsager	United States	"for the discovery of the reciprocal relations bearing his name, which are fundamental for the thermodynamics of irreversible processes"[೬೧]
1969		Derek H. R. Barton	United Kingdom	"for their contributions to the development of the concept of conformation and its application in chemistry"[೬೨]
		Odd Hassel	Norway
1970		Luis F. Leloir	Argentina	"for his discovery of sugar nucleotides and their role in the biosynthesis of carbohydrates"[೬೩]
1971		Gerhard Herzberg	ಕೆನಡಾ	"for his contributions to the knowledge of electronic structure and geometry of molecules, particularly free radicals"[೬೪]
1972		Christian B. Anfinsen	United States	"for his work on ribonuclease, especially concerning the connection between the amino acid sequence and the biologically active conformation"[೬೫]
		Stanford Moore	United States	"for their contribution to the understanding of the connection between chemical structure and catalytic activity of the active centre of the ribonuclease molecule"[೬೫]
		William H. Stein	United States
1973		Ernst Otto Fischer	Federal Republic of Germany	"for their pioneering work, performed independently, on the chemistry of the organometallic, so called sandwich compounds"[೬೬]
		Geoffrey Wilkinson	United Kingdom
1974		Paul J. Flory	United States	"for his fundamental work, both theoretical and experimental, in the physical chemistry of macromolecules"[೬೭]
1975		John Warcup Cornforth	Australia United Kingdom	"for his work on the stereochemistry of enzyme-catalyzed reactions"[೬೮]
		Vladimir Prelog	Switzerland	"for his research into the stereochemistry of organic molecules and reactions"[೬೮]
1976		William N. Lipscomb	United States	"for his studies on the structure of boranes illuminating problems of chemical bonding"[೬೯]
1977		Ilya Prigogine	Belgium	"for his contributions to non-equilibrium thermodynamics, particularly the theory of dissipative structures"[೭೦]
1978		Peter D. Mitchell	United Kingdom	"for his contribution to the understanding of biological energy transfer through the formulation of the chemiosmotic theory"[೭೧]
1979		Herbert C. Brown	United States	"for their development of the use of boron- and phosphorus-containing compounds, respectively, into important reagents in organic synthesis"[೭೨]
		Georg Wittig	Federal Republic of Germany
1980		Paul Berg	United States	"for his fundamental studies of the biochemistry of nucleic acids, with particular regard to recombinant-DNA"[೭೩]
		Walter Gilbert	United States	"for their contributions concerning the determination of base sequences in nucleic acids"[೭೩]
		Frederick Sanger	United Kingdom
1981		Kenichi Fukui	Japan	"for their theories, developed independently, concerning the course of chemical reactions"[೭೪]
		Roald Hoffmann	United States
1982		Aaron Klug	United Kingdom	"for his development of crystallographic electron microscopy and his structural elucidation of biologically important nucleic acid-protein complexes"[೭೫]
1983		Henry Taube	United States	"for his work on the mechanisms of electron transfer reactions, especially in metal complexes"[೭೬]
1984		Robert Bruce Merrifield	United States	"for his development of methodology for chemical synthesis on a solid matrix"[೭೭]
1985		Herbert A. Hauptman	United States	"for their outstanding achievements in developing direct methods for the determination of crystal structures"[೭೮]
		Jerome Karle	United States
1986		Dudley R. Herschbach	United States	"for their contributions concerning the dynamics of chemical elementary processes"[೭೯]
		Yuan T. Lee	United States
		John C. Polanyi	Canada
1987		Donald J. Cram	United States	"for their development and use of molecules with structure-specific interactions of high selectivity"[೮೦]
		Jean-Marie Lehn	France
		Charles J. Pedersen	United States
1988		Johann Deisenhofer	Federal Republic of Germany	"for their determination of the three-dimensional structure of a photosynthetic reaction centre"[೮೧]
		Robert Huber	Federal Republic of Germany
		Hartmut Michel	Federal Republic of Germany
1989		Sidney Altman	Canada United States	"for their discovery of catalytic properties of RNA"[೮೨]
		Thomas R. Cech	United States
1990		Elias James Corey	United States	"for his development of the theory and methodology of organic synthesis"[೮೩]
1991		Richard R. Ernst	Switzerland	"for his contributions to the development of the methodology of high resolution nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy"[೮೪]
1992		Rudolph A. Marcus	United States	"for his contributions to the theory of electron transfer reactions in chemical systems"[೮೫]
1993		Kary B. Mullis	United States	"for contributions to the developments of methods within DNA-based chemistry [...] for his invention of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method"[೮೬]
		Michael Smith	Canada	"for contributions to the developments of methods within DNA-based chemistry [...] for his fundamental contributions to the establishment of oligonucleotide-based, site-directed mutagenesis and its development for protein studies"[೮೬]
1994		George A. Olah	United States	"for his contribution to carbocation chemistry"[೮೭]
1995		Paul J. Crutzen	the Netherlands	"for their work in atmospheric chemistry, particularly concerning the formation and decomposition of ozone"[೮೮]
	Mario J. Molina	Mario J. Molina	United States
		F. Sherwood Rowland	United States
1996		Robert F. Curl Jr.	United States	"for their discovery of fullerenes"[೮೯]
		Sir Harold W. Kroto	United Kingdom
		Richard E. Smalley	United States
1997		Paul D. Boyer	United States	"for their elucidation of the enzymatic mechanism underlying the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)"[೯೦]
		John E. Walker	United Kingdom
		Jens C. Skou	Denmark	"for the first discovery of an ion-transporting enzyme, Na+, K+ -ATPase"[೯೦]
1998		Walter Kohn	United States	"for his development of the density-functional theory"[೯೧]
		John A. Pople	United Kingdom	"for his development of computational methods in quantum chemistry"[೯೧]
1999		Ahmed H. Zewail	Egypt United States	"for his studies of the transition states of chemical reactions using femtosecond spectroscopy"[೯೨]
2000		Alan J. Heeger	United States	"for their discovery and development of conductive polymers"[೯೩]
		Alan G MacDiarmid	United States New Zealand
		Hideki Shirakawa	Japan
2001		William S. Knowles	United States	"for their work on chirally catalysed hydrogenation reactions"[೯೪]
		Ryoji Noyori	Japan
		K. Barry Sharpless	United States	"for his work on chirally catalysed oxidation reactions"[೯೪]
2002		John B. Fenn	United States	"for the development of methods for identification and structure analyses of biological macromolecules [...] for their development of soft desorption ionisation methods for mass spectrometric analyses of biological macromolecules"[೯೫]
		Koichi Tanaka	ಜಪಾನ್
		Kurt Wüthrich	Switzerland	"for the development of methods for identification and structure analyses of biological macromolecules [...] for his development of nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy for determining the three-dimensional structure of biological macromolecules in solution"[೯೫]
2003		Peter Agre	United States	"for discoveries concerning channels in cell membranes [...] for the discovery of water channels"[೯೬]
		Roderick MacKinnon	ಅಮೇರಿಕ ದೇಶ	"for discoveries concerning channels in cell membranes [...] for structural and mechanistic studies of ion channels"[೯೬]
2004		Aaron Ciechanover	ಇಸ್ರೇಲ್	"for the discovery of ubiquitin-mediated protein degradation"[೯೭]
		Avram Hershko	ಇಸ್ರೇಲ್
		Irwin Rose	ಅಮೇರಿಕ ದೇಶ
2005		Yves Chauvin	France	"for the development of the metathesis method in organic synthesis"[೯೮]
		Robert H. Grubbs	ಅಮೇರಿಕ ದೇಶ
		Richard R. Schrock	ಅಮೇರಿಕ ದೇಶ
2006		Roger D. Kornberg	United States	"for his studies of the molecular basis of eukaryotic transcription"[೯೯]
2007		Gerhard Ertl	ಜರ್ಮನಿ	"for his studies of chemical processes on solid surfaces"[೧೦೦]
2008		Osamu Shimomura	United States[೧೦೧]	"for the discovery and development of the green fluorescent protein, GFP"[೧೦೨]
		Martin Chalfie	ಅಮೇರಿಕ ದೇಶ
		Roger Y. Tsien	ಅಮೇರಿಕ ದೇಶ
2009		ವೆಂಕಟರಾಮನ್ ರಾಮಕೃಷ್ಣನ್	ಭಾರತ, ಯುನೈಟೆಡ್ ಕಿಂಗ್‌ಡಮ್	"for studies of the structure and function of the ribosome"[೧೦೩]
		ಥಾಮಸ್ ಸ್ಟೀಟ್ಜ್	ಅಮೇರಿಕ ದೇಶ
		ಆಡ ಯೊನಾಥ್	ಇಸ್ರೇಲ್

ಮೂಲಗಳು

1. ಅಣುಯಂತ್ರ ರೂವಾರಿಗಳಿಗೆ ನೊಬೆಲ್‌;6 Oct, 2016
2. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1901". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
3. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1902". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
4. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1903". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
5. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1904". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
6. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1905". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
7. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1906". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
8. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1907". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
9. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1908". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
10. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1909". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
11. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1910". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
12. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1911". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
13. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1912". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
14. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1913". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
15. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1914". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
16. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1915". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
17. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1918". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
18. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1920". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
19. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1921". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
20. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1922". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
21. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1923". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
22. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1925". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
23. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1926". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
24. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1927". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
25. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1928". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
26. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1929". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
27. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1930". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
28. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1931". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
29. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1932". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
30. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1934". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
31. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1935". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
32. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1936". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
33. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1937". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
34. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1938". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
35. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1939". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
36. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1943". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
37. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1944". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
38. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1945". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
39. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1946". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
40. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1947". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
41. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1948". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
42. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1949". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
43. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1950". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
44. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1951". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
45. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1952". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
46. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1953". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
47. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1954". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
48. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1955". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
49. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1956". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
50. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1957". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
51. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1958". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
52. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1959". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
53. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1960". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
54. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1961". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
55. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1962". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
56. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1963". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
57. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1964". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
58. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1965". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
59. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1966". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
60. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1967". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
61. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1968". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
62. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1969". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
63. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1970". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
64. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1971". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
65. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1972". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
66. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1973". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
67. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1974". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
68. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1975". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
69. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1976". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
70. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1977". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
71. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1978". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
72. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1979". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
73. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1980". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
74. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1981". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
75. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1982". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
76. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1983". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
77. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1984". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
78. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1985". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
79. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1986". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
80. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1987". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
81. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1988". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
82. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1989". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
83. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1990". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
84. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1991". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
85. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1992". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
86. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1993". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
87. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1994". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
88. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1995". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
89. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1996". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
90. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1997". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
91. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1998". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
92. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1999". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
93. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2000". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
94. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2001". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
95. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2002". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
96. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2003". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
97. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2004". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
98. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2005". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
99. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2006". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
100. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2007". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-06.
101. As of 26 October 2008, the nobelprize.org website page for the 2008 award gives Shimomura's country as "USA". However, the press release from the Nobel Foundation on 8 October 2008, announcing the award, states that Shimomura is a Japanese citizen. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2008–Press Release". Nobelprize.org. 2008-10-08. Retrieved 2008-10-08.
102. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2008". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2008-10-08.
103. "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2009". Nobelprize.org. Retrieved 2009-10-07.