Archaeological evidence and historical records imply an extinction caused by hunting and deforestation in the 8th century BCE, with war elephants from the 3rd century BCE onward being imports from South Asia. However, the lack of evidence of Asian elephants in the Near East between 200,000 and 3,500 years ago has led some authors to propose that Bronze Age elephants were actually introduced by people to provide themselves with exotic game and ivory. If true, this would invalidate the subspecies E. m. asurus.[2]
Introduced to Sulu in the Philippines in the 14th century, before its extinction in Java; survived in the former until its extermination in 1850. However, the extant Bornean elephant has been suggested to have originated from Sulu stock and not be native to the island. If true, this would make the subspecies E. m. sondaicus synonymous with E. m. borneensis and not globally extinct.[3]
The date 7330-6250 BCE was obtained from carbonaceous clay near Palaeoloxodon remains in the Baneta Formation of the Narmada Valley, India, suggesting survival into the Holocene, though no direct datation was taken from the bones.[6]
The last population was discovered in the Commander Islands in 1741 and heavily hunted for meat and leather until it disappeared by 1768. The hunting of sea otters leading to a proliferation of Strongylocentrotussea urchins that ate the kelp that the sea cows depended on has been suggested as an additional cause.[7]
Most recent remains at Tabubung 4 dated to 62 BCE - 87 CE. The extinction coincides with a period of aridification, deforestation, and extinction of other giant rat species in the island.[10]
Only known from one specimen collected in 1953, generally believed to be from Ilin Island but this is not certain, and could be Mindoro or another nearby location. Later searches in Ilin and Mindoro repeatedly failed to find evidence of this species. If native to Ilin, it could have been threatened by deforestation as the island has no primary forest left in the present.[14]
Known only from an incomplete skull found in the tomb of Lady Xia, grandmother of Qin Shi Huang, who died around 240 BCE. Possibly declined due to deforestation and capture of individuals to become pets.[18]
Last confirmed record in 1983.[23] Though named as a subspecies on the basis of a stuffed specimen in 1862 (N. n. brachyura), later morphological and genetic studies invalidate this distinction.[24]
Last confirmed individual killed in 1937.[25] Named as a separate subspecies in 1912 (P. t. balica), but later included in P. t. sondaica on genetic grounds.[24]
A navicular from Borneo was dated to 8550-1050 BCE. Survival into even more recent times has been proposed on the basis of teeth and skins owned by indigenous peoples, local names, folklore, and alleged sightings including two photographs taken in 1975. However, most authors discount these remains as imports from outside Borneo, and the photographs as hoaxes.[27]
Population of the Sunda Island tiger (Panthera tigris sondaica)
Java, Indonesia
The last confirmed individual was killed at the Mount Halimun Salak National Park in 1984,[25] though a tiger was sighted near Sukabumi Selatan in 2019 and one recovered hair was identified as closer genetically to a Javan museum specimen than to tigers from Sumatra, southeast Asia, and Russia.[28] Named a distinct subspecies in 1844, but genetic research indicates that it is not different enough from the extant Sumatran tiger, and as a result the taxon P. t. sondaica is not extinct.[24]
The last known wild individual was killed in Turkey in 1970, and the last in captivity in Iran during the 1979 Revolution.[25] Though named as the subspecies P. t. virgata in 1815, genetic evidence indicates that it is not different enough from other tigers of the Asian mainland to warrant separate status. It was closest to the extant Siberian tiger.[24]
Population of the mainland Asian tiger (Panthera tigris tigris)
Southern China
Last recorded in the wild around 2000; survives in captivity.[29] Though named as the subspecies P. t. amoyensis in 1905, genetic evidence indicates that it is not different enough from other mainland tigers to warrant separate status.[24]
Historically recorded in Western Siberia until the 18th century. Analysis of bones found at archaeological sites from the Chalcolithic period (c. 3000-2000 BCE) show wild horses in this area belonged to the subspecies E. f. ferus and not to Przewalski's horse (E. f. przewalskii).[38]
Most recent remains at Bolshoy Lyakhovsky Island dated to 320-220 BCE. Horse remains of undetermined affiliation were also found in an Inuit site at Cape Baranov dating to the 8th-9th century CE. The cold-adapted Yakutian horse was speculated to be a descendant of the Lena horse, but genetic evidence shows it descends from domestic horses introduced from Central Asia in the Middle Ages.[42] Nevertheless, the Yakutian horse is used as proxy for the Lena horse in Pleistocene Park.[43]
Most recent remains at the Niah Caves, Sarawak dated to c. 6000 BCE. The Bornean tapir was similar in size or slightly smaller than other populations. Possible folk memory of the animal was documented in the island in the 19th century.[47]
Genetic evidence indicates that the domestic Bactrian camel and the extant, more desert-adapted wild Bactrian camel (C. ferus) from East Turkestan split over one million years ago. In consequence, the latter species cannot be the wild ancestor of the former, and the unknown ancestor of C. bactrianus must have become extinct at some point after the species was domesticated around 4000-3000 BCE.[53]
Described from skulls collected in Cebu island, where the species Sus cebifrons is now extinct, but lack of other remains makes the subspecies distinction with other Philippine islands populations dubious.[55] The whole species is threatened by habitat fragmentation caused by logging and agriculture, hunting pressure, and hybridization with domestic pigs.[56]
Disappeared from the Southern Levant during the Iron Age (1200-586 BCE). Being a large semiaquatic species, the hippopotamus was particularly vulnerable to habitat fragmentation and loss caused by the expanding human population.[58]
Last confirmed sighting in 2002; unconfirmed reports, including possible video footage, continued in the Tongling area until 2007. The species declined as a result of habitat loss by water development and construction, hunting, incidental mortality caused by fishing and vessel strikes, sedimentation from poor land practices, and pollution.[59]
Last known animals in the wild were killed in 1932 near Sai Yoke and Kwae Yai, and the last in captivity was killed in 1938. Declined in the 19th century because of habitat loss as its wet grassland habitat was turned into rice fields for export. It was also hunted for meat during the monsoon season, and to use its antlers in traditional medicine.[61]
A swamp specialist, it disappeared from the wild around 400 CE and was reduced to a single herd in the walled Nanyuang Royal Hunting Garden of Beijing from the Yuan Dynasty to the late 19th century, when some individuals were traded to Europe. The Nanyuang herd was then exterminated by Eight Nation Alliance troops during the 1900 Boxer Rebellion. In 1985-1987, animals from British zoos were released in protected areas of Beijing and Dafeng (thought to be part of the species's original range due to fossil evidence), from where other captive herds were established later in Shishou and Yuanyang. In 1998, deer from Shishou escaped during severe flooding and established four free-ranging populations in Hubei and Henan.[62][63]
Close
Cattle, goats, antelopes, and others (family Bovidae)
Most recent, confirmed remains were dated to 6870-6950 BCE near the Popigai River in the Taymyr Peninsula of Russia,[42] and environmental DNA of bison was recovered from permafrost in northeastern Siberia dating to 5050-3800 BCE.[48] Partial B. priscus remains are hard to distinguish anatomically from B. bonasus, which muddles the timeframe of its extinction in Europe and Western Siberia; often the species B. priscus is assigned to Late Pleistocene remains and B. bonasus to Holocene remains without further discussion.[42] However B. priscus is both genetically distinct and known to have survived into the middle Holocene of North America.[65] Remains of either B. priscus or B. bonasus were dated in the Angara River basin to 2550-2440 BCE,[66] and a small bison persisted in the Baikal region until the 7th-10th century CE (considered B. priscus by Boeskorov[42] and B. bonasus by Sipko[67]).
Most recent remains dated to 2200 BCE in Karnataka, India. The Indian aurochs was independently domesticated and is the originator of the zebu cattle.[68]
Present near Lake Baikal on 3020-2960 BCE,[70]China by 1900-1745 BCE,[71] Southern Levant until the Iron Age (1200-585 BCE),[58] and the Turkey-Syria border until the Late Middle Ages.[64] The Eurasian aurochs was domesticated in Anatolia in the eighth millennium BCE,[46] originating most domestic breeds of taurine cattle.
Present during the Holocene in the southern Urals, Western Siberia, the Kuznetsk Depression, Altai and Baikal regions[67] (if the latter wasn't B. priscus[42]). The subspecies became globally extinct in the wild after the last wild animals were hunted in Poland during World War I, but survived in captivity.[78] It was reintroduced to the Altai in 1982-1984.[67]
Most recent remains in the Taymyr Peninsula, Russia dated to 615-555 BCE.[70] It was reintroduced to the Bikada River area in the same region in 1974.[81]
No skeletal remains known but appears in Holocene rock art from Saudi Arabia and Jordan[80] in numbers and detail suggestive of being a native species to the area.[46] Recent presence in the Arabian Peninsula is controversial. In 1967, a pair of horns were claimed to have been taken from an animal shot in Jabal Halmayn, Yemen; another was shot in Nuqrah, Saudi Arabia in 1968. Some authors believe both were escapees from private collections,[82] others that the distance between the two locations is larger than it would be expected for introduced specimens.[46]
Last confirmed individual killed in Jubail, Saudi Arabia around 1941; there was also a second-hand report of a dying animal north of Petra, Jordan in 1966. Its closest relative, the North African ostrich, was introduced as a substitute in Saudi Arabia in the 1990s.[87]
Last collected in 1868. This species was only seen in Mussoorie for a short time period associated with cold weather. This, combined with its long and soft plumage, led to speculation that it was actually native to a more northern area and that it was pushed southwards during unusual weather conditions. The bird was also extremely cryptic, which would make it hard to detect in other areas where it might still be alive.[88]
Northern and eastern India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and Myanmar
Last recorded in Bihar in 1948-1949. It was uncommon and non-migratory despite its vast range. Declined due to trophy hunting, as it was generally not considered good to eat, and habitat destruction.[88]
Described from two individuals collected in 1891, when it was considered extremely rare, but there were unconfirmed local reports in 1995 that it was abundant until the 1970s. Possibly became extinct due to hunting and deforestation.[92]
Only known from the type specimen, a female, collected in 1953. Its mate was also shot but the body fell in the underbrush and could not be retrieved. Likely disappeared due to hunting and large escale deforestation of the island.[88]
The extirpated Philippine population was described as the subspecies G. a. luzonica on the basis of differences with the Indian (G. a. antigone) and Indochinese subspecies (G. a. sharpii), but genetic studies indicate that it was identical to the Australian subspecies.[93]
All reliable and recent records are from Java, with those from other islands being open to interpretation. The last confirmed record was in 1940, and unconfirmed in 2002. Possibly a migratory species. The causes of extinction are unknown but could have been hunting and habitat degradation.[88]
Bred in Kazakhstan and southern Siberia, and wintered in western Morocco and Tunisia. It likely disappeared as a result of habitat alteration in Asia and overhunting in Africa. There have been no confirmed reports worldwide since 2001.[88]
Last wild individual recorded at Palmyra, Syria in 2014. The birds of this region migrated to Ethiopia and Djibouti in the winter by way of Jordan and eastern Saudi Arabia, where they were hunted and sometimes killed in unprotected electric wires. Another reason for decline was the degradation of habitat in Syria due to aridification, livestock grazing, and firewood collection, along with poisoning by pesticides in Turkey.[95] A semi-wild population survives in Birecik, Turkey where birds range free for part of the year but are recluded and fed at the time of migration.[96]
Only known from the holotype collected in 1866, it is sometimes considered a subspecies of the Sulawesi scops owl (Otus manadensis). Likely disappeared due to deforestation.[88]
Only known from the holotype described in 1927 and lost in the destruction of the Bureau of Science in Manila in 1945. It has been ruled invalid by some authors because the original description (as the full species Phodilus riverae) did not include comparison with other subspecies.[98]
Last recorded in 1971; it likely disappeared due to hunting and widespread deforestation. The subspecies status is uncertain and is sometimes considered a color morph instead.[88]
Only known from the holotype collected in 1887. Its exact nature is suspect, as the island is unsuitable for kingfishers, the bill's sheath is missing from the holotype, and the length of flight feathers noted in the original description may have been an artefact of preservation. Otherwise the type is similar to the Guam kingfisher.[88]
The last individuals in captivity died in London in 1943, after being caught in the wild in 1929. The date of extinction in the wild is unclear, but was likely caused by widespread deforestation in the 19th and 20th centuries. 2004 reports likely belonged to other subspecies subsequently introduced to the island.[88]
Last recorded in 1908; a claimed individual collected in 1954 was actually a escaped cage bird. The subspecies likely disappeared due to deforestation and capture for the pet trade.[88]
Last collected in 1828; claims of survival until 1890 are not substantiated. Likely disappeared because of deforestation and predation by introduced rats and cats.[100]
Last confirmed record in 1978, with an unconfirmed one in 1980. It was a migratory species that wintered in central Thailand but the summer range is unknown. Possibly became extinct due to hunting, deforestation, and capture for the exotic pet trade.[88]
Last collected in 1918. There are some doubts about the original distribution, as only four skins are known: two acquired in Peninsular Malaysia where they were certainly imported from elsewhere, and two from Medan. If not migratory, it probably became extinct as a result of widespread deforestation in Medan.[88]
Only known from two specimens collected in 1876 or earlier. Possibly disappeared when the local forest was cleared in 1978, which also resulted in the extinction of the endemictreeAlbizia lankaensis.[112]
Last recorded in 1869; later observations in Sri Lanka and Southern India are misidentifications. The cause of extinction is unknown, but habitat loss has been suggested.[115]
Only known from the lectotype and type series collected in 1864. The cause of extinction is unknown, but habitat loss due to agriculture has been suggested.[119]
Last recorded in 1979. Extinct due to predation by introduced fish and frogs, and habitat degradation caused by general pollution, land reclamation, and domestic duck farming.[123]
Last recorded in the 1960s.[124] Several dams, pollution and water substraction for agriculture massively altered the hydromorphology of the river. The species was also fished deliberately and accidentally.[125]
Last recorded in the lower Yangtze around 1995. Captive animals were reintroduced to the upper and middle parts of the river in 2007, but there is still no sign of reproduction in the wild. The species declined due to fishing (both direct and accidental), pollution, deforestation on the river margins, and the construction of the Gezhouba Dam, Three Gorges Dam, and Xiangjiaba Dam, which changed the temperature and hydrology and prevented the sturgeon from reahcing the lower part of the river.[126]
Last recorded in 2003. The construction of the Gezhouba Dam in the middle part of the Yangtze blocked the migration route to spawn in the upper river. It was also heavily fished historically, which depleted the species as it had a long generation time.[129]
Last recorded in 1982. Disappeared along with most of the original ichthyofauna of the lake (see below) due to excesive and unsustainable fishing practices such as dynamite fishing, extraction of water for industrial, agricultural, and domestic use; illegal logging and pollution, and predation by accidentally introduced tank goby and snakehead gudgeon. The latter species is now the most common fish in the lake.[133]
The holotype was collected in an unidentified river in Misamis Occidental in 1934. It was only known from Lake Lanao otherwise, and was last recorded there before 1973.[151]
Extirpated from its original range in 1940, when acidic water was released to the lake during the construction of hydroelectric power infrastructure. Survives in Lake Saiko, where the species was introduced in 1935.[155]
Last recorded in the Ural in the 1960s. All spawning grounds were lost after dams were built in the Volga, Ural, and Terek river drainages. The species continues to exist in captivity, from which it is released periodically in its native range. However, illegal fishing and hybridization with the introduced nelma remain threats to its survival.[156]
Last collected in 1934. The coasts it inhabited are heavily exploited, both for fishing and shark fishing, as well as degraded for use in aquaculture, pollution, and destruction of coral reefs.[162]
Only known from three specimens collected in 1916. The only known locality is now heavily developed and urbanized, making it likely that it disappeared due to habitat destruction.[165]
The source gives "11,700 calendar yr b2k (before CE 2000)". But "BP" means "before CE 1950". Therefore, the Holocene began 11,650 BP. Doing the math, that is c. 9700 BCE.
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