两栖动物 是一種变温 、卵生 、营水陆两栖的肉食性四足類 脊椎动物 (部分类群四足退化),在生物分类学 上构成名为两栖纲 (學名 :Amphibia )的分类单元 。特征為表皮裸露,无鳞甲、毛羽等覆盖,皮膚通过分泌粘液以保持身体湿润;四足有趾而无爪。所产的卵缺乏卵壳 保湿,因此需产在水中。幼体出生后必须在水中生活,用鳃 呼吸,成年后可在陆地上生活,用肺 和皮肤呼吸,主要捕食小型无脊椎动物 。
演化
两栖动物相信起源於泥盆紀 晚期,於石炭紀 爆發[ 2] [ 3] [ 4] :87 。传统的分类学观点中,将两栖动物化石分为三个亚纲,分別是[ 5] :迷齿亚纲 (labyrinthodontia )[ 2] :87 、壳椎亚纲 及滑体亚纲 。
近年認為殼椎亞綱是與羊膜動物 有關或是其的祖先[ 6] ,即牠們是已滅絕 (但不包括羊膜動物)的多系分類[ 7] ,或是一個非常接近羊膜動物祖先(非兩棲類)的單系群 [ 8] 。
两栖动物由泥盆纪 晚期的肉鳍鱼类 演化而来,是四足类动物从水栖发展到陆栖的中间过渡类型,进化程度介于高等鱼类和羊膜動物 之间。早期两栖动物在石炭纪 繁盛一时,分化出许多大型种类,为淡水和陆地上的顶级捕食者,但由于食性较为单一,且对各种水体的适应性不及鱼类,陆地生存能力又逊于后起的羊膜动物,自中生代 以来两栖动物逐渐衰落,至今大部分种类都已灭绝。现存的两栖动物均属于滑体亚纲 ,多數體型較小,包括青蛙 、蟾蜍 (蛤蟆)、蝾螈 、大鯢 (娃娃鱼)等,共计约8000种,已描述7000余种,在脊椎动物中仍属大类,物种多样性 仅次于辐鳍鱼类 和羊膜动物。其在交配後,能產卵400餘枚,數量驚人。
传统的分类体系中,除羊膜動物外的所有四足類動物都歸為兩栖綱,在此定義下部份兩栖動物為羊膜動物的祖先。然而,各類羊膜動物(合弓纲 和蜥形纲 )獨立於兩棲綱之外,使得傳統的兩棲綱成為並系群 (即缺少部分演化支 ,未囊括所有後代),因此現行分類縮小了兩棲綱的涵蓋範圍,僅限於四足總綱 下蛙形類 的一支,與羊膜動物 所屬的爬行形类 分为两支,互不相關,切断了传统分类中两栖动物与羊膜动物的演化关系,這一新的定義使部份早期四足類動物不再隸屬兩栖動物。
下级分类
兩棲綱
†离片椎目 (Temnospondyli )
滑体亚纲 (Lissamphibia )
无足目 (Apoda ),又称蚓螈目 或裸蛇目 (Gymnophiona ):约5科 、34属 、170种
有尾目 (Urodela ),又称蝾螈目 (Salamandriformes ):约9科、60属、358种,如娃娃鱼 、蠑螈
无尾目 (Anura ),又称蛙形目 (Raniformes ):约20科、303属、3700种,如青蛙 、蟾蜍
†異螈目 (Allocaudata )
(註:† 表示已滅絕)
史前类群壳椎亚纲 (Lepospondyli)也曾被归类于此,但实际上这一演化支更接近羊膜动物 ,属于爬行形类 。
生理构造
循環系統
心臟:兩心房,一心室
消化系統
解剖了的青蛙:1. 右心房,2. 肺,3. 主動脈,4. 大量的卵子 ,5. 結腸,6. 左心房,7. 心室,8. 胃,9. 肝,10. 膽囊,11. 小腸,12泄殖腔
大部分兩棲動物都能透過彈出口腔內可伸展的舌頭去捕捉獵物,其帶有黏性的舌尖能很好的黏著獵物並將其帶回口中,而無須動用顎骨半分。一些物種會以慣性 去協助它們吞嚥,它們會反覆將頭部快速伸前以製造推力,從而令慣性將獵物吞進食道中。由於大部分的兩棲動物都不會咀嚼獵物,而是整支的吞進食道中,因此它們多有一個特別大的胃部,嘔吐的時候則會直接將胃吐出。不長的食道 內部有纖毛 協助將食物推往胃中,口腔內及咽喉 中的腺體亦會分泌黏液 去平滑食道。胃部則會透過分泌幾丁質酶 (Chitinase)去消化節肢動物 的幾丁質 外殼。
生长繁殖
两栖动物繁殖 时候需要水,因为它们的卵 要生在水里。刚从卵裡出来的幼体形态似鱼(如蝌蚪 )用鳃呼吸,有侧线 ,依靠尾鳍 游泳。然后经变态 才能上陆生活。一般来说,它们最后会离开水,但是并非所有两栖动物都是这样。它们成长过程中最明显的是长出四条腿 来在陆地上行走,另外还有:
食性
两栖动物都是食肉的,一般以蠕虫 、蜘蛛 和昆虫 为食。较大一点的两栖动物还以小的爬行动物 、哺乳动物 甚至螃蟹 为食物。
防衛機制
两栖动物擁有柔軟的身體及薄的皮膚,既沒有爪,也沒有防禦性的硬甲或刺狀物,令它們有沒有防衛機制的錯覺。但事實上牠們卻演化出不同的防衛機制去保護自己。蠑螈及青蛙的第一道防線為牠們所製造的粘液分泌。這令牠們的皮膚濕潤並且難於捕捉。這些分泌物除了黏稠外,亦有難吃的味道,甚至帶有毒性。[ 10] 有觀察紀錄發現蛇在吞食非洲爪蟾 時被逼張大嘴巴,從而讓青蛙有逃走的機會。[ 11] 有關蚓螈在這方面的所知甚少,但已知扁尾盲游蚓螈 (Typhlonectes compressicauda )在巴西進行的一項實驗中此種的毒素能殺死獵食牠的魚類。[ 12] 部分的蠑螈的皮膚是有毒的。在北美洲生活的粗皮漬螈 (Taricha granulosa )及其同屬物種均能製造出強力的神經毒素——河豚毒素 ,這種為已知非蛋白質最毒的物質。在測試中,魚類、青蛙、爬蟲類、鳥類及哺乳類動物均對其無招架之力。[ 13] [ 14] 唯一已知的獵食者為束帶蛇 (Thamnophis sirtalis )。當在與粗皮漬螈共同生活的地方出現的束帶蛇族落是少數能抵受這種毒性的生物。牠們因基因突變去改變牠們的免疫系統而適應了這種毒性,使牠們能以粗皮漬螈為食而不受到任何傷害。[ 15] 這種關係構成牠們之間的共同演化 。當束帶蛇演化出更好的防禦能力後,粗皮漬螈也會加強牠們的毒素去抵抗。諸如此類獵物與捕食者間不斷精進毒素與抗毒能力的共演化現象被視為「軍備競賽」,使雙方不斷演化出更毒之毒素及更強之解毒能力。這種互相施加演化壓力而改變彼此演化方向的現象固然為共演化的範例。[ 14] 部分青蛙與蟾蜍也是有毒的,而牠們的藏毒腺體多在頸的兩側及背部的疣上。這些區域都是顯而易見,以向攻擊者表示警號。此外這些分泌物亦會帶來特別的氣味或引起不同的物理及神經方面的症狀。在極少量已被研究的兩棲動物中,已分離了超過200種不同的有毒物質。
有毒物種多以鮮艷的顏色去警告捕獵者。這些顏色多為紅色或黃色配以黑色,例如火蠑螈 就是明顯的例子。一旦獵食者曾嚐過一口這些物種,牠們就會牢牢記著這些顏色的物種並不可口。一些物種的警告色 長在腹部上,如铃蟾属 的物種。因此牠們在遇到攻擊時反而會將腹部朝上,並分泌毒液以趕退敵人。並有一些物種本身沒有毒性,如紅背異箭毒蛙 ,就會模擬 在其地域中有毒的物種的膚色以嚇退獵食者。[ 17]
不少兩生動物都是夜行性 並於日間隱藏起來,以避開日間捕食的物種。其他兩棲動物則善用不同的偽裝 避免被發現。這些物種多有斑駁的棕色、灰色或橄欖色等以混和於背景中。一些蠑螈在面對獵食者會有獨特的反捕行為 。一項以北短尾鼩鼱 (Blarina brevicauda )及不同的蠑螈所作的測試中,發現不少蠑螈會在面對獵食者時會不斷翻騰身體,並會高舉或拍打尾巴,使獵食者在獵食時無可避免地接觸到牠們皮膚上製毒的腺體。[ 18] 另一為人所知的防衛機制為自割 尾巴以便逃脫。有研究指尾巴有獨特的結構以便它們在危難時被移離身體。一般而言被自割的尾巴都能夠再生,但所需的能量不菲。[ 19]
一些青蛙及蟾蜍則透過吸入大量空氣令身體膨脹,使牠們的外觀變得巨大及兇猛起來,一些鋤足蟾 甚至會發出叫聲並主動跳向攻擊者。[ 20] 大鯢 、角花蟾亞科 (Ceratophryinae)物種及箱頭蛙屬 (Pyxicephalus )的物種都有尖銳的牙齒,並能在防制性的咬擊中令對手流血受傷。分佈於美國 的黑腹脊口螈 (Desmognathus quadramaculatus )就能夠對攻擊牠們的束帶蛇造成牠們身體兩至三倍大小的傷口,並且常能在掙扎中離開險境。[ 21]
火蠑螈 (
Salamandra salamandra )鮮艷的膚色能向獵食者傳達出顯眼的警告訊息,並且牠們的皮膚能製造劇毒
蠑螈鹼 來保護自己。
金色箭毒蛙 (
Phyllobates terribilis )可能是毒性最強的兩棲動物,皮膚上布滿了高濃度劇毒
蛙毒素 。
[ 22]
下属分类
本纲包括以下目 :
目的地位未定 的科:
Acanthostegidae
Acherontiscidae
Adelogyrinidae
Allophyrnidae
Almasauridae
两栖螈科 Amphibamidae
真齿蛙科 Amphignathodontidae
Anthracosauridae
先驱螈科 Archegosauridae
Archeriidae
Asterophrydidae
Baphetidae
Batrachiderpetontidae
Batrachophrynidae
Benthosuchidae
Angusaurus Getmanov, 1989
Gondwanosaurus Lydekker, 1885
Kwatisuchus
Kwatisuchus rosai Pinheiro, Eltink, Paes-Neto, Machado, Simões & Pierce, 2024[ 23]
Odenwaldia Morales & Kamphausen, 1984
Pachygonia Huxley, 1865
Qantas Novikov, 2012
Syrtosuchus Novikov, 2016
Thoosuchus Efremov, 1940
Volgosuchus Efremov, 1940
Vyborosaurus Novikov, 1990
Brachyopidae
Brachystelechidae
Branchiosauridae
Bystrowianidae
Caerorhachidae
Capitosauridae
Capitosauroides Haubold, 1971
Capitosaurus Münster, 1836
Capitosaurus robustus (Meyer & Plieninger, 1844)
Cyclotosaurus Fraas, 1889
Cyclotosaurus buechneri Witzmann, Sachs & Nyhuis, 2016
Cyclotosaurus ebrachensis Kuhn, 1932
Cyclotosaurus hemprichi (Kuhn, 1942)
Cyclotosaurus intermedius Sulej & Majer, 2005
Cyclotosaurus naraserluki Marzola, Mateus, Shubin & Clemmensen, 2017[ 24]
Cyclotosaurus papilio Wepfer, 1913
Cyclotosaurus posthumus Fraas, 1913
Paracyclotosaurus Watson, 1958
Parotosaurus Jaekel, 1922
Ceratophrynidae
Chigutisauridae
Chroniosuchidae
Cochleosauridae
Cocytinidae
Colosteidae
Colostethidae
Crassigyrinidae
Cricotidae
Cyclotosauridae
Cystignathidae
Dactylethridae
Deltacephalidae
Dendrerpetontidae
Dendrophryniscidae
Derwentiidae
Diadectidae
Diplocaulidae
Discosauriscidae
Dissorophidae
Dvinosauridae
Dwinasauridae
Dyscophidae
Edopidae
Engystomidae
Enosuchidae
Eobrachyopidae
Eogyrinidae
Eoherpetontidae
Epicria
Eryopidae
Eryosuchidae
Eugyrinidae
Gephyrostegidae
Gymnarthridae
Hapsidopareiidae
Hapsidopareiontidae
Hemisidae
Heylerosauridae
Hylonomidae
Hyloplesiontidae
Ichthyostegidae
Indobrachyopidae
Intasuchidae
Keraterpetontidae
Konzhukoviidae
Kotlassiidae
Kourerpetidae
Laidleriidae
Lapillopsidae
Latiscopidae
Leptorophidae
Lethiscidae
Limnoscelididae
Liopelmidae
Lydekkerinidae
Lyrocephaliscidae
Lysipterygiidae
Mastodonsauridae
Melosauridae
Metoposauridae
Microbrachidae
Micromelerpetontidae
Micropholidae
Molgophidae
Nycteroleteridae
Odonterpetontidae
Ophiderpetontidae
Ostodolepidae
Otocratiidae
Pantylidae
Paracyclotosauridae
Parioxyidae
Parotosuchidae
Peltobatrachidae
Phlegethontiidae
Pholidogasteridae
Phryniscidae
斜橫螈科 Plagiosauridae
Platystegidae
Proterogyrinidae
Protobatrachidae
Protritonidae
Pseudophlegethontiidae
Ptyoniidae
Rhinesuchidae
Rhynchonkidae
Rhytidosteidae
Sauropleuridae
Scincosauridae
Sclerocephalidae
Sclerothoracidae
Seymouriidae
Solenodonsauridae
Thoosuchidae
Tokosauridae
Trematopidae
Trematopsidae
Trematosauridae
Trihecatontidae
Trimerorhachidae
Tseajaiidae
Tuditanidae
Tulerpetontidae
Tupilakosauridae
Uranocentrodontidae
Urocordylidae
Urodela
Waggoneriidae
Wetlugasauridae
Whatcheeriidae
Yarengiidae
Zatrachydidae
目和科的地位未定 的属:
Abiadisaurus Warren, Yates, Damiani, Goodwin, Wood & Schaff, 1998
Acanthostoma Credner, 1883
Actibates Jardine, 1853
Acutipes Heyler & Lessertisseur, 1963
Adenoderma Fritsch, 1877
Agostopus Gilmore, 1926
Allopus Marsh, 1894
Altenglanerpeton Glienke, 2012
Amblyodon Dawson, 1882
Amblyopoditta Strand, 1935
Amblyopus Gilmore, 1927
Ammobatrachus Gilmore, 1928
Amphibiopodiscus Ellenberger, 1970
Amphibiopus Ellenberger, 1970
Amphicoelosaurus Barkas, 1873
Amphisauroides Haubold, 1970
Amphisauropus Haubold, 1970
近蜥龍屬 Amphisaurus Barkas, 1870
Ancudia Philippi, 1902
Ancylopus Carman, 1928
Anisopus Owen, 1842
Anomoeichnus Carman, 1928
Antarctosuchus Sidor, Steyer & Hammer, 2014
Anthichnium Nopcsa, 1923
Anthracobamus Werneburg, 2019
Anthracopus Lorenz, 1879
Anthrakerpeton Owen, 1865
Aquiloniferus Bjerring, 1999
Arachana Piñeiro, Ramos & Marsicano, 2012
Archaeoovulus Capasso, Pallizzi, Milia & D'Anastasio, 2013
Arethusa Bonaparte, 1838
Arethusa Duméril & Bibron, 1841
Arizonerpeton Thayer, 1985
Arotus Cope, 1877
Asaphestera Steen, 1934
Asperipes Matthew, 1903
Atopotera Steen, 1934
Austropelor Longman, 1941
Axolotes Owen, 1844
Barillopus Matthew, 1903
Baropezia Matthew, 1903
Baropus Marsh, 1894
Barypodus Gilmore, 1926
Bathysiredon Taylor, 1940
Batrachichnus Woodworth, 1900
Batrachocephalus Fric, 1876
Batrachopodiscus Ellenberger, 1972
Batrachosaurus Fitzinger, 1843
Batrachosaurus Owen, 1876
Batrichnis Harkness, 1851
Benthosaurus Efremov, 1929
Benthosuchus Efremov, 1936
Bermanerpeton Werneburg, Schneider & Lucas, 2021
Biarmica Ivachnenko, 1987
Bissektia Nessov, 1981
铃蟾属 Bombina Tian & Hu, 1985
Borborophagus Branson & Mehl, 1929
Brachystelechus Carroll & Gaskill, 1978
Bradyarges Gistl, 1868
蟾蜍屬 Bufo Rösel von Rosenhof, 1758
Calamita Merrem, 1820
Calamite Schneider, 1799
Calmasuchus Fortuny, Josep, Angel Galobart & Carles De Santisteban, 2011
Calochelys Fritsch, 1879
Capetus Steen, 1938
Capulomala Warren, Damiani & Sengupta, 2009
Ceratophryne Günther, 1858
Chaparana Fei, Ye & Huang, 1990
Chelidosaurus Fric, 1878
Chigutisaurus Rusconi, 1948
Chinlestegophis Pardo et al., 2017
Chionopelas Tschudi, 1846
Collettosaurus Cox, 1874
Cordyloides Fritsch, 1904
環尾蜥屬 Cordylus Wagler, 1828
Corvipes Hitchcock, 1858
Cosmus d'Orbigny
Cratopipa Carvalho et al., 2019
Crenipes Heyler & Lessertisseur, 1963
Crucipes Butts, 1891
Cursipes Matthew, 1903
Datheosaurus Schroeder, 1905
Delphinosaurus Eichwald, 1853
Dendryazousa Steen, 1934
Desmodactylus Duméril & Bibron, 1854
Devipes Heyler & Lessertisseur, 1963
Diadetognathus Miall, 1874
Dictyocephalus Leidy, 1857
Diplopelturus Depéret, 1897
Diplospondylus Lydekker, 1889
Discodactylus Wagler, 1833
盘椎龙属 Discosaurus Credner, 1883
Diversipes Heyler & Lessertisseur, 1963
Doryphorus Brocchi, 1881
Doryphorus Mayer, 1835
Dromillopus Lambe, 1904
Dromopus Marsh, 1894
Dryomelictes Cope, 1865
Edingerella Schoch & Milner, 2000
Eldeceeon Smiths, 1994
Electrorana Xing et al., 2018
Elophila Duméril & Bibron, 1841
Eobatrachus Moodie, 1902
Eosauravus Williston, 1910
Eosaurus Marsh, 1862
Eoserpeton Moodie, 1909
Epicordylus Cope, 1878
Epipolysemia Brame, 1973
Episcopopus Ellenberger, 1970
Erierpeton Moodie, 1913
Erpetobrachium Moodie, 1913
Erpetosaurus Cope, 1874
Erpetosuchus Moodie, 1911
Eryopides Douthitt, 1917
Eryopsoides Douthitt, 1917
Eryosuchus Ochev, 1966
Eubates Steindachner, 1864
Euchirosaurus Gaudry, 1879
Eupalamopus Hay, 1902
Eupleurodus Gürich, 1884
Eurosaurus Kutorga, 1838
Eurycervix von Huene, 1902
Euryops Cope, 1884
Eurythorax Cope, 1871
Exobranchia Gray, 1850
Foliipes Heyler & Lessertisseur, 1963
Fritschia Dawson, 1882
Genibatrachus Gao & Chen, 2017
Gilmorella Strand, 1935
Glanochthon Schoch & Witzmann, 2009
Glossiphus Green, 1832
Glyptognathus Lydekker, 1882
Gnorhimosuchus Efremov, 1951
Goniocara Hay, 1929
Goniocephalus Broili, 1913
Gracilichnium Haubold, 1970
Grippiella Herre, 1949
Gryphius Gistl, 1848
Hadromophryne Hewitt, 1913
Halobatrachus Hammer, 1987
Heliarchon Meyer, 1860
Hemibatrachus Fitzinger, 1843
Hemichthys Fritsch, 1895
Hemiprichisaurus Kuhn, 1939
Hemprichisaurus Kuhn, 1939
Hensonbatrachus Gardner & Brinkman, 2015
Hercynosaurus Jaekel, 1914
Herpetichnus Jardine, 1850
Hesperopherpeton Peabody, 1958
Heylerosaurus Shishkin, 1980
Hiobates Steindachner, 1864
Huskerpeton Huttenlocker, Pardo, Small & Anderson, 2013
Hybridus Peracca, 1886
Hydrospelaeus Leuckart, 1821
Hylaemorphus Fitzinger, 1857
Hyliola Mocquard, 1899
Hyloidichnus Gilmore, 1927
Hylophryne Steindachner, 1864
Hylopus Dawson, 1895
海纳螈属 Hynerpeton Daeschler, Shubin, Thomson & Amaral, 1994
Hyperodon Lichtenstein & Martens, 1856
Hyphasma Cope, 1875
Iberospondylus Laurin & Soler-Gijón, 2001
Icanosaurus Rusconi, 1950
Ichnium Pabst, 1896
Ichthyerpeton Etheridge, 1866
Iliobates Steindachner, 1867
Joermungandr Mann, Calthorpe & Maddin, 2021
Jugosuchus Riabinin, 1962
Kalamoiketor Branson & Mehl, 1929
Kirktonecta Clack, 2011
Korkonterpeton Werneburg et al., 2020
Koskinonodon Branson & Mehl, 1929
Kryostega Sidor, Damiani & Hammer, 2008
Kupferzellia Schoch, 1997
Kuruleufenia Gómez, 2016
Labyrinthodon Owen, 1841
Lagunculapes Hitchcock, 1858
Laosuchus Arbez, Sidor & Steyer, 2018
Lasalia Vaughn, 1965
Lehahichnus Ellenberger, 1970
Leptognathosaurus Barkas, 1873
Limnopus Marsh, 1894
滑螈属 Lissotriton Gistl, 1868
Lithobatrachus Parker, 1929
Lonchorhynchus Wiman, 1910
Lusor Steen, 1938
Lutetiobatrachus Wuitke, 1988
Lysorocephalus Huene & Bock, 1954
Macromerium Lydekker, 1890
Macrosaurus Barkas, 1873
Macrothaelacion Wagler, 1833
Marpurgichnium Schindewolf, 1928
Mastocephalus van Hoepen, 1934
Matthewichnus Haubold, 1970
Megalerpeton Young, 1870
Megapezia Matthew, 1903
Memonomenos Steen, 1938
Mentosaurus Roepke, 1930
Merothaelacium Wagler, 1833
Mesichnium Gilmore, 1926
Meyerosuchus Ochev, 1966
Micrarthroleptis Deckert, 1938
Micrerpeton Moodie, 1909
Micrichnium Abel, 1926
Micropelobates Wettstein-Westersheimb, 1955
Milneria Hunt, Lucas & Berman, 1996
Moenkopisaurus Shishkin, 1960
Mycetoglossus Bonaparte, 1839
Mycetoides Duméril & Bibron, 1854
Mynbulakia Nessov, 1981
Mytaras Steen, 1931
Nanipes Heyler & Lessertisseur, 1963
Nanobamus Schoch & Milner, 2014
Nanopus Marsh, 1894
Nanospondylus Olson, 1965
Nectura Rafinesque, 1820
Notalacerta Butts, 1891
Notamphibia Butts, 1891
Notobatrachus Reig, 1956
Novascoticus Carroll, 1966
Octopodichnus Gilmore, 1927
Odontosaurus Meyer, 1835
Oestocephalus Cope, 1868
Onyctopus Martin, 1922
Ophiderpeton Fristch, 1879
Opisthocoelellus Kuhn, 1941
Ornithichnites King, 1845
蜥鳥盜龍屬 Ornithoides Matthew, 1903
Orthopleurosaurus Lydekker, 1890
Orthosauriscus Kuhn, 1933
Orthosaurus Barkas, 1871
Otilopha Gray, 1831
Otuminisaurus Rusconi, 1948
Palaeophrynos Tschudi, 1838
Palaeopus Gilmore, 1926
Palaeosalamandra Herre, 1949
Palaeosalamandrina Herre, 1949
Palaeosaurus Fitzinger, 1843
Palaeosiren Geinitz, 1864
Palaeostricha van Frank, 1955
Palaeotriton Fitzinger, 1843
Palatinerpeton Boy, 1996
Paleohelcura Gilmore, 1926
Paleotriton Bronn, 1838
Palodromeus Schoch, Henrici & Hook, 2020
Parabaropus Gilmore, 1927
Paramicrobrachis Kuhn, 1960
Pariostegus Cope, 1868
Parotosuchus Ochev & Shishkin, 1968
Parvipes Willard & Cleaves, 1930
Pelion Cope, 1869
Pelonectes Lataste, 1879
Pelosaurus Credner, 1882
Perryella Carlson, 1987
Petrobates Credner, 1890
Petrophryne Owen, 1876
Phaenerobranchus Fitzinger, 1826
Phrynoderma Boulenger, 1893
Phrynophrys Bonaparte, 1839
Phylhydrus Swainson, 1839
Pithecopsis Duméril & Bibron, 1840
Platosphus L'Isle, 1877
扁头蛇属 Platyceps Stephens, 1887
Platyops Williston, 1918
Platyrhincus Duméril & Bibron, 1841
Platyrhynchus Leuckart, 1816
Platytherium Barkas, 1873
Pleuronoura Gaudry, 1879
Pleuroptyx Cope, 1875
Podonectes Steindachner, 1864
Porierpeton Fritsch, 1885
Potamochoston Steen, 1938
Proamphibia Karpinskii, 1930
Probatrachus Peters, 1877
Promelanerpeton Kuhn, 1961
Propelodytes Weitzel, 1938
Protocordylus Hyrtl, 1865
Protopelobates Bieber, 1880
Protophrynus Pomel, 1853
Protriton Boy, 1972
Proxilodon Huttenlocker, Pardo, Small & Anderson, 2013
Pseudarthroleptis Deckert, 1938
Pseudobradypus Matthew, 1903
Pseudopipa Ritgen, 1828
Ptychosphenodon Seeley, 1907
Puertollanopus Soler-Gijon & Moratalla, 2001
Ranavus Portis, 1885
Ranetta Geoffroy, 1767
Raniceps Wyman, 1858
Raphanodon Ivachnenko, 1987
Rewanobatrachus Schoch & Milner, 2000
Rhachitomus Cope, 1878
Rhaphidochir Wagler, 1833
Rhombopholis Fritsch, 1879
Rileymillerus Bolt & Chatterjee, 2000
Rubeta Fatio, 1872
Ruecklinichnium Kuhn, 1958
Saharastega Sidor, O'Keefe, Damiani, Steyer, Smith, Larsson, Sereno, Ide & Maga, 2005
Saurichnium Gürich, 1926
Sauropus Hitchcock, 1845
Sauropus Lea, 1849
Schmidtopus Haubold, 1970
Scotobius Gistl, 1848
Seelya Fritsch, 1883
Serripes Heyler & Lessertisseur, 1963
Silvanerpeton Clack, 1994
Sparagmites Fritsch, 1885
Spathicephalus D.M.S.Watson, 1929
Sphagepodium Steindachner, 1864
Sphenosaurus Meyer, 1847
Steenisaurus Kuhn, 1938
Stenichnus Gilmore, 1927
Stephanopus Gand, 1975
Stereorachis Gaudry, 1883
Stremmeia Nopcsa, 1931
Streptodontosaurus Barkas, 1873
Strictipes Heyler & Lessertisseur, 1963
Strombus Gray, 1830
Syphonodon Seeley, 1908
Tarsodactylus Hitchcock, 1858
Temnocorpichnus Lucas, Fillmore & Simpson, 2010
Termonerpeton Clack, Smithson & Ruta, 2022
Tetrapodium Gürich, 1926
Thaumastosaurus De Stefano, 1904
Thenaropus King, 1844
Thinopus Marsh, 1896
Thyrsidium Cope, 1874
Timanosaurus Gubin, 1993
Timonya Cisneros, Marsicano, Angielczyk, Smith, Richter, Fröbisch, Kammerer & Sadleir, 2015
Tischlieriella Herre, 1949
Tomeia Eltink et al., 2017
Torridorefugium Hembree, Hasiotis & Martin, 2005
Trematopsis Olson, 1956
Triaenopus Hitchcock, 1848
Triavestigia Gilmore, 1927
Tridactylosaurus Barkas, 1873
Tridentichnus Gilmore, 1927
Trypanognathus Schoch & Voigt, 2019
Tyrrellbatrachus Gardner, 2015
Ulanurus Gubin, 1991
Urumqia Zhang, Li & Wan, 1984
Utaherpeton Carroll, Bybee & Tidwell, 1991
Varibatrachus Parmley et al., 2015
Vladlenosaurus Morkovin & Novikov, 2000
Voigtiella Herre, 1949
Volgaosuchus Efremov, 1940
Warrenisuchus Maganuco, Steyer, Pasini, Boulay, Lorrain, Bénéteau & Auditore, 2009
Watsonisuchus Ochev, 1966
Wealdenbatrachus Fey, 1988
Westlothiana Smithson & Rolfe, 1990
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Frost, Darrel R.; Grant, Taran; Faivovich, Julián; Bain, Raoul H.; Haas, Alexander; Haddad, Célio F.B.; De Sá, Rafael O.; Channing, Alan; Wilkinson, Mark; Donnellan, Stephen C.; Raxworthy, Christopher J.; Campbell, Jonathan A.; Blotto, Boris L.; Moler, Paul; Drewes, Robert C.; Nussbaum, Ronald A.; Lynch, John D.; Green, David M.; Wheeler, Ward C. The Amphibian Tree of Life . Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History . 2006, 297 : 1–291 [2021-01-22 ] . doi:10.1206/0003-0090(2006)297[0001:TATOL]2.0.CO;2 . hdl:2246/5781 . (原始内容存档 于2018-10-04).
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