地理統計(英語:geostatistics,或譯作地統計學、地學統計、地質統計學等)是統計學中關注空間或時空數據集的一個分支,最初是從採礦作業中預測礦石品位的概率分佈而發展出來的[1],目前已應用於石油地質學、水文地質學、水文學、氣象學、海洋學、地球化學、地質冶金學、地理學、林業、環境控制、景觀生態學、土壤學,以及農業(尤其是精準農業)等多個學科。地理統計應用於地理學的各個分支,特別是涉及疾病傳播(流行病學)、商業和軍事規劃(物流)的實踐,還應用於建設高效的空間網絡。地理統計相關算法已融入地理資訊系統(GIS)等許多應用場景。
提示:此條目頁的主題不是
統計地理學。
地理統計與插值方法密切相關,但遠不止簡單的插值問題。地理統計技術依賴基於隨機函數(或隨機變量)理論的統計模型來模擬與空間估計和模擬相關的不確定性。
許多更簡單的插值方法/算法,例如反距離加權、雙線性插值和最近鄰插值,在地統計學問世前就已經普及。[2]但地統計學超越了插值問題,將位於未知位置的要研究的現象視作一組相關的隨機變量。
令Z(x)為特定位置x處的感興趣變量的值。這個值是未知的(例如溫度、降雨量、測壓水位、地質相等)。儘管可以前往位置x測量該數值,但地統計學認為該值在尚未測量時是隨機的。然而,Z(x)又不完全隨機,可以用累積分佈函數(CDF)定義,而該函數依賴於關於Z(x)值的某些已知資訊(information):
通常,如果靠近x的某些位置(或位於x的鄰域中)的Z的值已知,則可以通過該鄰域來約束Z(x)的累積分佈函數:如果假設空間是高度連續的(空間自相關),則Z(x)必與附近的值相似。相反,若空間連續性很弱,則Z(x)可以取任何值。隨機變量的空間連續性可以用空間連續性模型來描述;它可以是基於變差函數的地統計學中的參數形式的模型,也可以是非參數形式的,如多點模擬[3]或偽遺傳方法。
研究者可將單個空間模型應用在整個定義域上,藉此假設Z是一個平穩過程。它表示相同的統計屬性適用於整個定義域。許多種地理統計方法提供了將這些平穩性假設的條件放寬的方法。
該框架中,可以區分兩個建模目標:
- 估計Z(x)的值,通常使用累積分佈函數f(z,x)的期望值、中位數或眾數。其通常表現為估計問題。
- 考慮每個位置上的每種可能結果,從整個概率密度函數f(z,x)中採樣。其方法通常是建立幾個替代性的Z,稱為實現(realization)。考慮在N維網格節點(或像素)中離散化的域。每個實現都是完整N維聯合分佈函數的樣本
- 該方法承認插值問題存在多種解法。每個實現都被視作真實變量可能取值的情形。然後,所有與之相關的工作流都在考慮實現的集成,從而考慮允許概率預測的預測集成。因此,地統計學常用於在求解逆問題時生成或更新空間模型。[4][5]
地理統計估計和多重實現方法都存在許多方法。一些參考書提供了該學科的全面概述。[6][2][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15]
克里金法(Kriging)是一類地統計技術,用於在缺少觀測值的位置,根據在附近位置的觀察值插入隨機場的值(例如高程z)。
貝氏推論是一種統計推論方法,它使用貝氏定理在獲得更多證據或資訊時更新概率模型。貝氏推論在地統計學中日益重要。[16]貝氏估計通過空間過程實現克里金法,最常見的是高斯過程,並使用貝氏定理更新該過程以計算其後驗概率。另有高維貝葉斯地統計學。[17]
考慮到概率守恆原理,循環差分方程(有限差分方程)可與格網相結合,計算概率,對地質構造的不確定性進行量化。此過程是馬可夫鏈和貝葉斯模型的數值替代方法。[18]
- 區域化變量理論
- 協方差函數
- 半方差
- 變差函數
- 克里金法
- 基台值
- 變程
- 金塊效應
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