時間地理學

時間地理學（英語：time geography）或時空地理學（time-space geography）是關於空間和時間過程和事件的發展中的跨學科視角，其中事件可以是社會互動、種間關係、社會和環境變化，甚至個人傳記。^[1]時間地理學「本身並不是一個學科領域」^[2]，而是一個整合的本體論框架和視覺語言（英語：Visual language），其中空間和時間是動態過程分析的基本維度。時間地理學最初是由人文地理學家發明的，但如今已應用於交通運輸、區域規劃（英語：Regional planning）、地理學，人類學、時間利用研究（英語：Time-use research）、生態學、環境科學和公共衛生等多個領域。^[3]瑞典地理學家Bo Lenntorp認為：「它是一種基本方法，每個研究人員都可以依照自己的方式將其與理論考慮聯繫起來。」^[4]

起源

瑞典地理學家托斯騰·哈格斯特朗基於他早期的關於瑞典人口遷徙模式的經驗研究中的思想，於1960年代中期創立了時間地理學。^[5]他使用「一種關於研究時空框架內事件如何發生的物理方法」，尋求「一種發現大型社會環境機制運作方式的方法」。^[6]哈格斯特朗在一定程度上受到了時空物理學的概念進步和物理主義哲學的啟發。^[7]

哈格斯特朗最早的時間地理學表述非正式地描述了其主要的本體論特徵：在一定情景下，「個體在時空中畫出了一條軌跡」。「生活軌跡被束縛在一系列的制約之網中，其中有些制約是生理和身體上的需要所施加的，有些是私人和集體決定所施加的」。^[8]哈格斯特朗表示「不可能提供所有可視作時空現象的制約的類別，」但他「初步描述」了三種重要的制約類別：

• 能力制約（capability constraints）：由於個體的生物學結構（英語：biological constraints）和/或他們可掌握的工具而對其個體活動的限制，
• 組合制約（coupling constraints）：「界定一人必須在何處、何時以及持續多久地與其他人、工具和材料一同進行生產、消費和交易」的限制（與關鍵路徑分析密切相關），以及
• 權威制約（authority constraints）：對領域或「時空實體的限制，其中事物和事件在特定的個人或特定的群體的控制下」。^[9]

時間地理視覺語言（英語：Visual language）的示例：時空立方體、軌跡、稜柱、束和其他概念。

哈格斯特朗用新創立的圖形符號形式說明了這些概念（一定程度上是受音樂符號（英語：Musical notation）的啟發），^[10]如：

• 時空水族館（space-time aquarium）或時空立方體（space-time cube），以空間和時間坐標的軸測投影的形式表示各軌跡；
• 時空稜柱（space-time prism），它表示在特定的能力制約和組合制約的情況下，個體在時空中可能的行為；
• 軌跡束（bundles），它們是軌跡的匯合處，部分是由於它們的能力制約和組合制約而形成的，並且有助於創建「地方秩序嵌套（pockets of local order）」；
• 同心管（concentric tubes）或可及性環（rings of accessibility），標示特定個體的某些能力制約，例如空間大小有限，手、口、聽覺和視覺能力有限；以及
• 領域的嵌套層級（nested hierarchies of domains），表示特定個人或群組的權威制約。^[11]

儘管這種創新的視覺語言（英語：Visual language）是時間地理學的基本特徵，但哈格斯特朗的同事Bo Lenntorp強調，它是作為基礎的本體論的產物，不能本末倒置。記號系統是一種非常有用的工具，但是對於豐富的世界觀而言卻是相當貧乏的反映。許多情況下，記號工具一直是時間地理學的標誌。但是，作為基礎的本體論才是最重要的功能。^[12]時間地理並不只是與時間-地理圖有關，就像音樂不只是與音樂符號有關一樣。哈格斯特朗隨後解釋說：「這其中蘊含的是一個四維世界的形式。它不能完全以圖形方式描繪。但話說回來，人應該能夠足夠清晰地想像它，以便指導經驗和理論研究。」^[13]

到1981年，地理學家奈傑爾·斯里夫特（英語：Nigel Thrift）和艾蘭·普瑞德（英語：Allan Pred）已經在為時間地理學辯護，以反駁那些認為其「只是空間和時間組織的僵硬的描述性模型、只能用於可達性制約分析（以及社會工程學的相關活動）」的人。^[14]他們認為，時間地理學不僅僅是制約的模型；它是對現實的靈活而發展的思考方式，可以補足多種理論和研究方法。此後的幾十年中，哈格斯特朗等人一直在努力闡明他最初的一套概念。^[15]哈格斯特朗晚年時不再使用「時間地理學」一詞來指代這種思維方式，而改為使用諸如「拓撲生態學」等。^[16]

後續發展

使用公交網絡數據的時空稜柱的圖解和示例：右側是時空稜柱的示意圖，而左側是兩個不同時間預算下的可能軌跡區域的圖示。^[17]

自1980年代以來，時間地理學已得到社會科學、^[18]生物科學^[19]和跨學科領域的研究者的應用。

1993年，英國地理學家吉莉安·羅斯（英語：Gillian Rose (geographer)）指出：「時間地理學在關注人們的日常軌跡方面與女性主義是相通的，並且和女性主義類似，通過考慮制約因素，將這類軌跡與更大的社會結構聯繫起來。」^[20]但是，她指出，時間地理學尚未應用於對女性主義者來說重要的問題上，她稱其為「社會科學男性化」的一種形式。^[20]在隨後的幾十年中，女性主義地理學（英語：Feminist geography）家重新審視了時間地理學，並開始將其用作解決女權問題的工具。^[21]

GIS軟件已經能夠在各種空間尺度上計算和分析時間地理問題。這些分析使用了不同類型的網絡數據集（例如步行網絡、公路網絡和公共交通時刻表）以及各種可視化策略。^[22]GeoTime（英語：GeoTime）等專用軟件可以幫助進行時間地理視覺化和視覺分析。

時間地理學也被用作心理健康的治療評價（英語：Therapeutic assessment）的一種形式。^[23]

本傑明·巴赫（Benjamin Bach）及其同事將時空立方體推廣為一個時間數據可視化的框架，該框架適用於所有能夠用兩個維度外加時間來表示的數據。^[24]

在2019冠狀病毒病疫情中，時間地理學方法在追蹤密切接觸者方面得到了應用。^[25]疫情大流行限制了人類的物理活動，也使得時間地理學在後疫情時代交往虛擬化、數碼化的背景下必須採用新的方法。^[26]

參見

• 個體為本模型
• GIS與公共衛生（英語：GIS and public health）
• 歷史生態學（英語：Historical ecology）
• 歷史地理信息系統（英語：Historical geographic information system）
• 物質流分析（英語：Material flow analysis）
• 社會代謝多尺度綜合評估（英語：MuSIASEM）
• 桑基圖（英語：Sankey diagram）
• 時空數據庫（英語：Spatiotemporal database）
• 時間-距離圖（英語：Time–distance diagram）

腳註

1. Thrift & Pred 1981，第277頁; Carlstein 1982，第ii頁
2. Lenntorp 1999，第155頁
3. Sui 2012
4. Lenntorp 1999，第158頁
5. Lenntorp 1999，第157頁
6. Hägerstrand 1970
7. In Hägerstrand 1983 and Kuklinski 1987, Hägerstrand cites the writings of Albert Einstein and Arthur Eddington on general relativity as inspirations. Physicalist philosopher and sociologist Otto Neurath is cited in Hägerstrand 1970. While these ideas are important sources for time-geographic ontology, time geography should not be portrayed as exclusively physicalist. Hägerstrand also cited phenomenologist Martin Heidegger and conservationist Rachel Carson as major influences, along with numerous geographers (Kuklinski 1987，第507頁). "Hägerstrand wanted to stress the importance of the material aspects of the real world as the basis of life, with an imperative for researchers to take basic constraints into consideration: that natural resources, time, and space are limited... Nevertheless, Torsten Hägerstrand was not a hardcore materialist. His materialism is embedded in a deep concern for the importance of human experiences, reflections, and reasoning for the development of geographical knowledge." (Ellegård & Svedin 2012，第18頁)
8. Hägerstrand 1970，第10–11頁
9. Hägerstrand 1970，第11–17頁
10. Kuklinski 1987，第507頁; Buttimer & Mels 2006，第119頁; Ellegård & Svedin 2012
11. Hägerstrand 1970; Carlstein 1982
12. Lenntorp 1999，第156頁
13. Hägerstrand & Carlstein 2004，第323頁
14. Thrift & Pred 1981，第277頁
15. For a more extensive list of Hägerstrand's publications, see Torsten Hägerstrand
16. Ellegård & Svedin 2012，第18頁; Hägerstrand & Carlstein 2004，第323頁
17. Allen 2019
18. For example: Ellegård & de Pater 1999 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFEllegårdde_Pater1999 (help); Ellegård & Palm 2011; Fischer-Kowalski et al. 2010; Kwan 2004; Latham 2003; Ringhofer 2009; Schwanen & Kwan 2009; Singh et al. 2010; Tani & Surma-Aho 2012
19. For example: Baer & Butler 2000; Brasebin & Buard 2011; Downs, Horner & Tucker 2011; Huettmann & Cushman 2009; Zhao et al. 2013; Saeedimoghaddam et al. 2017
20. Rose 1993
21. For example: Kwan 2007; Kwan & Ding 2008; McQuoid & Dijst 2012; Scholten, Friberg & Sandén 2012
22. For example: Andrienko et al. 2013; Kwan et al. 2014; Allen 2019
23. Lewchanin & Zubrod 2001; Sunnqvist et al. 2007; Sunnqvist et al. 2013
24. Bach et al. 2014; Bach et al. 2016
25. Yin, Zhangcai, et al. "Measuring of the COVID-19 Based on Time-Geography." （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館） International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 18.19 (2021): 10313.
26. Klapka, Pavel, Ellegård, Kajsa and Frantál, Bohumil. "What about Time-Geography in the post-Covid-19 era?" Moravian Geographical Reports, vol.28, no.4, 2020, pp.238-247. https://doi.org/10.2478/mgr-2020-0017

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延伸閱讀

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