德內－高加索語系（Dené-Caucasian），或譯作達內－高加索語系，亦稱漢－高加索語系（Sino–Caucasian）[注 1]，是一個假設的超語系，包括漢藏語系、布魯夏斯基語、葉尼塞語系、北高加索語系、北美的納－德內語系，甚至是歐洲的瓦斯科尼亞語系（包括巴斯克語）。有時蘇美爾語和阿爾吉克語系（阿爾岡昆－瓦卡希語系）也被歸入其中。該語系存在與否還處在爭議中，大部分關於該超語系的研究在20世紀90年代之後才開始展開。
Quick Facts 德內－高加索語系, 地理分佈 ...
Close
2008年語言學家愛德華·瓦伊達提出了一個範圍更小的超語系假說，即德內－葉尼塞語系，該假說認為西伯利亞的葉尼塞語系與北美的納－德內語系存在同源關係，該假說獲得了許多歷史語言學家的認可。但至今，多數語言學家仍對德內－高加索語系假說持懷疑或否定態度。[1][2][3][4][5]
20世紀時，特隆貝蒂、薩丕爾、布雷齊斯特內、斯瓦迪士和托普洛夫等學者先後提出類似於德內－高加索語系的假說，並對該問題進行了相關探索。20世紀80年代，蘇聯語言學家斯塔羅斯金提出漢－高加索語系假說，指出高加索語、葉尼塞語和漢藏語可能具有同源關係，並提供了大量的語言學證據[6]。80年代末，本特森也加入到這項假說的研究中來。
漢－高加索語系的成員自該假說提出後就不斷擴充。1991年，尼古拉耶夫證明了高加索語與納－德內語的發生學關係，從而在該超語系假說中加入納－德內語[7]。1996年，本特森將瓦斯科尼亞語系（這一語系包括巴斯克語、阿基坦語甚至是伊比利亞語）納入該超語系假說中，1997年，本特森又將布魯夏斯基語納入。擴充後的假說被稱為「德內－高加索語系」。[8]
2005年，斯塔羅斯金進一步提出「德內－台語系」假說，該假說假定德內－高加索語系和澳語係為德內－台語系的兩個分支，這個更為宏大的假說將漢藏語、北高加索語、侗台語、苗瑤語、南亞語、南島語等許多語系包含進來。斯塔羅斯金還猜測德內－台語系可能於公元前一萬年分化，形成了德內－高加索語系和澳語系兩大分支[9]。
以斯塔羅斯金為首的莫斯科學派堅信「基本詞彙對應是證明發生學關係的關鍵」，他們因此以語言年代學為基礎，依照詞彙對應等為證據對德內－高加索語系展開論證，但是他們並不注重考古學等旁證[9]。至2005年，斯塔羅斯金提供了956組詞彙對應形式，以證明漢藏語、高加索語等語言之間存在同源關係。其中有一部分詞彙原始形態存在明顯的相似，如：[10]
More information 詞彙, 原始高加索語 ...
| 詞彙 |
原始高加索語 |
原始漢藏語
|
| 飛 |
*pɨrV |
*phur~*bhur
|
| 毛髮 |
*c'ɦěme |
*chām
|
| 毛髮 |
*kɨ̌wrV |
*kra
|
| 葉子 |
*tˡ'ǎp |
*lǎp
|
Close
有些詞彙原始形態不甚近似，但在高加索語中的語音變化卻與漢藏語一致，如「血」一詞在高加索語系的達吉語中讀 "ħi" ，而在漢藏語系的杜密語中讀 "hi" [10]。除詞彙對應外，斯塔羅斯金及其同事還發現了高加索語與漢藏語之間的數種語音對應和形態對應形式。在語音對應方面，斯塔羅斯金認為原始德內－高加索語邊塞音/tˡ/、/dˡ/在原始漢藏語中分化，詞首保留邊音/l/、/tˡ/，詞尾則變成軟齶音/k/；斯塔羅斯金亦發現原始高加索語的緊音與葉尼塞語的喉塞音/ʔ/對應，並猜測這種對應與原始德內－高加索語的超音段成分有關。[11]
斯塔羅斯金等莫斯科學派語言學家堅信人類語言的單一起源論，並開展了名為「巴別塔計劃」的研究項目，斯塔羅斯金本人提出了「漢－高加索語系」並認為納－德內語可能屬於漢－高加索語系，其同事則展開了漢－高加索語系與納－德內語等其它語系的比較。[8]根據研究成果，斯塔羅斯金及其同事整理出如下的譜系樹，並通過修訂語言年代學估算了德內－高加索語系各語言的分化時間[12]：
德內－高加索語系
公元前8700年
|
漢－瓦斯科尼亞語
Sino‑Vasconic
公元前7900年
|
漢－高加索語系
公元前6200年
|
高加索－漢－葉尼塞語
公元前5900年
|
漢－葉尼塞語
公元前5100年
|
|
|
|
|
|
北高加索語系
North Caucasian
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
布魯沙斯基語
Burushaski
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
瓦斯科尼亞語系
Vasconic
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
納－德內語系
Na-Dené
|
|
|
|
|
|
本特森(John D. Bengtson)把巴斯克語、高加索語及布魯夏斯基語組合成為大高加索語系(Macro-Caucasian family)[13]。本特森並未對大高加索語系之外的德內－高加索語系分支畫出詳細的譜系樹，而是將這些分支暫時直接放在德內－高加索語系之下，因為他認為目前對這些分支的研究尚不成熟。本特森也留意到蘇美爾語在地理上與其西支及東支分享着相同的等語線[8][14]。
德內－高加索語系
Dené‑Caucasian
|
大高加索語族
The Macro‑Caucasian family
|
| 巴斯克－高加索語
|
|
|
瓦斯科尼亞語系
Vasconic
|
|
|
|
|
北高加索語系
North Caucasian
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
布魯沙斯基語
Burushaski
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
蘇美爾語（可能）
Sumerian
|
|
|
|
|
漢藏語系
Sino-Tibetan
|
|
|
|
|
葉尼塞語系
Yeniseian
|
|
|
|
|
納－德內語系
Na-Dené
|
|
|
|
|
|
漢－高加索語系的範圍與德內－高加索語系有所不同，漢－高加索語系通常不包括納－德內語和瓦斯科尼亞語系，見該章節。
Campbell, Lyle (1997). American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 286-288
Goddard, Ives (1996). "The Classification of the Native Languages of North America". In Ives Goddard, ed., "Languages". Vol. 17 of William Sturtevant, ed., Handbook of North American Indians. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. pg. 318
Trask, R. L. (2000). The Dictionary of Historical and Comparative Linguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. pg. 85
Dalby, Andrew (1998). Dictionary of Languages. New York: Columbia University Press. pg. 434
- BENEDICT, Paul K., 1972. Sino-Tibetan: A Conspectus: 103ff; Ed. by J. A. Matisoff. Cambridge University Press.
- BENGTSON, John D., Materials for a Comparative Grammar of the Dene–Caucasian (Sino-Caucasian) Languages. (PDF), Aspects of Comparative Linguistics 3, Moscow: RSUH Publishers: 45–118, 2008 [2010-07-03], （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於2011-06-08）
- BENGTSON, John D., 2004. "Some features of Dene–Caucasian phonology (with special reference to Basque)." In Cahiers de l'Institut de Linguistique de Louvain (CILL): 33–54.
- BENGTSON, John D., 2003. "Notes on Basque Comparative Phonology." Mother Tongue 8: 21–39.
- BENGTSON, John D., 2002. "The Dene–Caucasian noun prefix *s-." In The Linguist's Linguist: A Collection of Papers in Honour of Alexis Manaster Ramer, ed. by F. Cavoto, pp. 53–57. Munich: LINCOM Europa.
- BENGTSON, John D., 1999a. "Review of R.L. Trask, The History of Basque." In Romance Philology 52 (Spring): 219–224.
- BENGTSON, John D., 1999b. "Wider genetic affiliations of the Chinese language." Journal of Chinese Linguistics 27 (1): 1–12.*BENGTSON, John D., 1994. "Edward Sapir and the 'Sino-Dene' Hypothesis." Anthropological Science (Tokyo) 102: 207-230.
- BENGTSON, John D., 1998. "Caucasian and Sino-Tibetan: A Hypothesis of S. A. Starostin." General Linguistics, Vol. 36, no. 1/2, 1998 (1996). Pegasus Press, University of North Carolina, Asheville, North Carolina.
- BENGTSON, John D., 1997a. "Ein Vergleich von Buruschaski und Nordkaukasisch [A comparison of B. and North Caucasian]." Georgica 20: 88–94.
- BENGTSON, John D., 1997b. "The riddle of Sumerian: A Dene–Caucasic language?" Mother Tongue 3: 63–74.
- BENGTSON, John D., 1996. "A Final (?) Response to the Basque Debate in Mother Tongue 1." (see External links below)
- BERGER, Hermann, 1998. Die Burushaski-Sprache von Hunza und Nager. 3 volumes. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
- BERGER, Hermann, 1974. Das Yasin-Burushaski (Werchikwar). Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
- BOMHARD, Allan R., 1997. "On the origin of Sumerian." Mother Tongue 3: 75-93.
- CATFORD, J. C., 1977. "Mountain of Tongues: The languages of the Caucasus." Annual Review of Anthropology 6: 283-314.
- DIAKONOFF, Igor M., 1997. "External Connections of the Sumerian Language." Mother Tongue 3: 54-63.
- ENRICO, John. 2004. Toward Proto–Na-Dene. Anthropological Linguistics 46(3).229–302.
- HANDEL, Zev Joseph. The Medial Systems of Old Chinese and Proto-Sino-Tibetan. PhD thesis. University of California at Berkeley. 1998 [2008-01-28]. （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於2008-01-03）.
- KOROTAYEV, Andrey, and KAZANKOV, Alexander, 2000. "Regions Based on Social Structure: A Reconsideration （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館）". Current Anthropology 41/5 (October, 2000): 668–69.
- CHIRIKBA, Vyacheslav A., 1985. "Баскский и северокавказские языки [Basque and the North Caucasian languages]." In Древняя Анатолия [Ancient Anatolia], pp. 95-105. Moscow: Nauka.
- NIKOLA(Y)EV, Sergei L., 1991. "Sino-Caucasian Languages in America." In Shevoroshkin (1991), pp. 42–66.
- PEIROS, Ilia, and STAROSTIN, Sergei A., 1996. "A comparative vocabulary of five Sino-Tibetan languages". University of Melbourne Department of Linguistics and Applied Linguistics.
- PINNOW, Heinz-Jürgen (1990a). Die Na-Dene-Sprachen im Lichte der Greenberg-Klassifikation [The Na-Dene languages in the light of the Greenberg classification]. Nortorf: Völkerkundliche Arbeitsgemeinschaft. (Abhandlungen, Heft 64)
- PINNOW, Heinz-Jürgen (1990b) (in two parts). Vogelnamen des Tlingit und Haida. Materialien zu ihrer sprachhistorischen Erforschung sowie Auflistung der Vogelarten von Alaska [Bird names of Tlingit and Haida. Materials to their language-historical investigation and list of the bird species of Alaska]. Nortorf: Völkerkundliche Arbeitsgemeinschaft. (Abhandlungen, Hefte 67–68)
- PINNOW, Heinz-Jürgen (1988). Verwandtschafts- und andere Personenbezeichnungen im Tlingit und Haida: Versuch ihrer sprachhistorischen Deutung [Kinship and other person terms in Tlingit and Haida: attempt at their language-historical interpretation]. Nortorf: Völkerkundliche Arbeitsgemeinschaft. (Abhandlungen, Heft 62)
- PINNOW, Heinz-Jürgen (1986a). Die Zahlwörter des Haida in sprachvergleichender Sicht [The numerals of Haida in comparative view]. Nortorf: Völkerkundliche Arbeitsgemeinschaft. (Abhandlungen, Heft 47)
- PINNOW, Heinz-Jürgen (1986b). Säugetiernamen des Haida und Tlingit: Materialien zu ihrer historischen Erforschung [Mammal names of Haida and Tlingit: materials to their historical investigation]. Nortorf: Völkerkundliche Arbeitsgemeinschaft. (Abhandlungen, Heft 50)
- PINNOW, Heinz-Jürgen (1985a). Sprachhistorische Untersuchung einiger Tiernamen im Haida (Fische, Stachelhäuter, Weichtiere, Gliederfüßer, u.a.) [Language-historical investigation of some animal names in Haida (fish, echinoderms, mollusks, arthropods, and others)]. Nortorf: Völkerkundliche Arbeitsgemeinschaft. (Abhandlungen, Heft 39)
- PINNOW, Heinz-Jürgen (1985b) (in four parts). Das Haida als Na-Dene-Sprache [Haida as a Na-Dene language]. Nortorf: Völkerkundliche Arbeitsgemeinschaft. (Abhandlungen, Hefte 43–46)
- RUBICZ, R., MELVIN, K. L., CRAWFORD, M.H. 2002. Genetic Evidence for the phylogenetic relationship between Na-Dene and Yeniseian speakers. Human Biology, Dec 1 2002 74 (6) 743-761.
- RUHLEN, Merritt, 2001a. "Il Dene–caucasico: una nuova famiglia linguistica." Pluriverso 2: 76–85.
- RUHLEN, Merritt, 2001b. "Taxonomic Controversies in the Twentieth Century", in New Essays on the Origin of Language, ed. by Jürgen Trabant and Sean Ward, Berlin, Mouton de Gruyter, 197–214.
- RUHLEN, Merritt, 1998a. "Dene–Caucasian: A New Linguistic Family," in The Origins and Past of Modern Humans—Towards Reconciliation, ed. by Keiichi Omoto and Phillip V. Tobias, Singapore: World Scientific, 231–46.
- RUHLEN, Merritt, 1998b. "The Origin of the Na-Dene." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the U.S.A. 95: 13994–13996.
- RUHLEN, Merritt, 1998c. "The Origin of the Na-Dene." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 95: 13994–96.
- RUHLEN, Merritt. 1997. "Une nouvelle famille de langues: le déné-caucasien," Pour la Science (Dossier, October), 68–73.
- SCHMIDT, Karl Horst, 1994. "Class Inflection and Related Categories in the Caucasus." In Non-Slavic Languages of the USSR, ed. by H. I. Aronson, pp. 185-192. Columbus, OH: Slavica.
- SCHULZE-FÜRHOFF, Wolfgang, 1992. "How Can Class Markers Petrify? Towards a Functional Diachrony of Morphological Subsystems in the East Caucasian Languages." In The Non-Slavic Languages of the USSR: Linguistic Studies, Second Series, ed. by H. I. Aronson, pp. 183-233. Chicago: Chicago Linguistic Society.
- SHEVOROSHKIN, Vitaliy V., 2004. "Proto-Salishan and Proto-North-Caucasian Consonants: a few cognate sets." in Nostratic Centennial Conference: the Pécs Papers. ed. by. I. Hegedűs & P. Sidwell, pp. 181–191. Pécs: Lingua Franca Group.
- SHEVOROSHKIN, Vitaliy V., 2003. "Salishan and North Caucasian." Mother Tongue 8: 39–64.
- STAROSTIN, Sergei A. and Orel, V., 1989. "Etruscan and North Caucasian." Explorations in Language Macrofamilies. Ed. V. Shevoroshkin. Bochum Publications in Evolutionary Cultural Semiotics. 23. Bochum.
- SHEVOROSHKIN, Vitaliy V., 1999 "Nostratic and Sino-Caucasian: two ancient language phyla." In From Neanderthal to Easter Island (Festschrift W. W. Schuhmacher), ed. by N. A. Kirk & P. J. Sidwell. pp. 44–74. Melbourne.
- SHEVOROSHKIN, Vitaly V., 1998 Symposium on Nostratic at Cambridge, Mother Tongue (ASLIP), Fall 1998, (31): 28–32 [2008-01-28], （原始內容 (JPEG)存檔於2008-02-19）
- SHEVOROSHKIN, Vitaliy V., 1991. (Ed.) Dene–Sino-Caucasian Languages. Bochum: Brockmeyer.
- STAROSTIN, Sergei A., 2004–2005. Sino-Caucasian [comparative phonology] & Sino-Caucasian [comparative glossary].
- STAROSTIN, Sergei A., 2002. "A response to Alexander Vovin's criticism of the Sino-Caucasian theory." Journal of Chinese Linguistics 30.1:142–153.
- STAROSTIN, Sergei A., 2000. "Genesis of the Long Vowels in Sino-Tibetan." In Проблемы изучения дальнего родства языков на рыбеже третьего тысячелетия: Доклады и тезисы международной конференции РГГУ [Problems of the research on the distant origin of languages at the beginning of the third millennium: Talks and abstracts of the international conference of the RGGU], Moscow 2000.
- STAROSTIN, Sergei A., 1996. "Word-final resonants in Sino-Caucasian." Journal of Chinese Linguistics 24.2: 281–311. (written for the 3rd International Conference on Chinese Linguistics in Hongkong in 1994)*STAROSTIN, Sergei A., 1995. "Old Chinese Basic Vocabulary: A Historical Perspective." In The Ancestry of the Chinese Language (Journal of Chinese Linguistics Monograph No. 8), ed. by W. S.-Y. Wang, pp. 225–251. Berkeley, CA.
- STAROSTIN, Sergei A., Preface (PDF), Sergei A., Starostin; Nikola(y)ev, Sergei L. (編), A North Caucasian Etymological Dictionary, Moscow: Asterisk Publishers: 7–199, 1994
- STAROSTIN, Sergei A., On the Hypothesis of a Genetic Connection Between the Sino-Tibetan Languages and the Yeniseian and North Caucasian Languages, SHEVOROSHKIN, Vitaliy V. (編), Dene-Sino-Caucasian languages: materials from the First International Interdisciplinary Symposium on Language and Prehistory, Ann Harbor: Bochum: Brockmeyer: 12–41, 1991 [Translation of Starostin 1984]
- STAROSTIN, Sergei A., Гипотеза о генетических связях синотибетских языков с енисейскими и северокавказскими языками [A hypothesis on the genetic relationships of the Sino-Tibetan languages with the Yeniseian and the North Caucasian languages], Vardu, I. F. (編), Лингвистическая реконструкция и древнейшая история Востока [Linguistic reconstruction and the ancient history of the East], Moscow: Академия наук, Институт востоковедения Institute of Orientalistics of the USSR Academy of Sciences: 19–38, 1984 [See Starostin 1991 for English translation]
- The preliminary phylogenetic tree, The Tower of Babel (Evolution of Human Language Project), 2006-05-28 [2008-01-28], （原始內容 (PNG)存檔於2007-09-26）
- TRASK, R. L., 1999. "Why should a language have any relatives?" Pages 157–176 in: C. Renfrew & D. Nettle (eds.): Nostratic: Examining a Linguistic Macrofamily, McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, Cambridge (UK).
- TRASK, R. L., 1997. "Basque and the Superfamilies". The History of Basque, Routledge, London. (See especially pages 403–408.)
- TRASK, R. L., 1995. "Basque and Dene–Caucasian: A Critique from the Basque Side". Mother Tongue 1:3–82.
- TRASK, R. L., 1994–1995. "Basque: The Search for Relatives (Part 1)." Dhumbadji! 2:3–54.
- VAJDA, Edward J. (2004): Ket. (Languages of the World, Materials, 204) München: LINCOM Europa
- VAJDA, Edward J. (2002): The origin of phonemic tone in Yeniseic. CLS 37 (Parasession on Arctic languages): 305-320
- VAJDA, Edward J. (2001a): Toward a typology of position class: comparing Navajo and Ket verb morphology. Read at: SSILA Summer Meeting, July 7, 2001
- VAJDA, Edward J. (2001b): Linguistic relations across Bering Strait: Siberia and the Native Americans. Read at: Bureau of Faculty Research, Western Washington University, Bellingham, WA, March 8, 2001
- VAJDA, Edward J. 2000. Evidence for a genetic connection between Na-Dene and Yeniseian (Central Siberia). – Paper read at: January 2000 meeting of Society for the Study of Indigenous Languages of America (SSILA) and Linguistic Society of America (LSA)
- VAJDA, Edward J. 2000a. Yeniseian and Na-Dene: evidence for a genetic relationship. – Paper read at: 38th Conference on American Indian Languages (SSILA), Chicago, Jan. 2000
- VAJDA, Edward J. 2000b. Yeniseian and Athabaskan–Eyak–Tlingit.' – Paper read at: Linguistics Department Colloquium, University of British Columbia, Mar. 2000
- VAJDA, Edward J. 2000c. Ket verb morphology and its parallels with Athabaskan–Eyak–Tlingit: evidence of a genetic link. – Paper read at: Athabaskan Language Conference, Moricetown, BC, June 9, 2000
- VAJDA, Edward J. 2000d. Athabaskan–Eyak–Tlingit and Yeniseian: lexical and phonological parallels. Read at: 39th Conference on American Indian Languages, San Francisco, Nov. 14-18, 2000
- VAN DRIEM, George, 2001. "The Languages of the Himalayas." Brill, Leiden.
- VOVIN, Alexander, 2002. "Building a 'bum-pa for Sino-Caucasian." Journal of Chinese Linguistics 30.1: 154–171.
- VOVIN, Alexander, 1997. "The Comparative Method and Ventures Beyond Sino-Tibetan." Journal of Chinese Linguistics 25.2: 308–336.
- WERNER, Heinrich K. (2004): Zur jenissejisch-indianischen Urverwandtschaft [On the Yeniseian-[American] Indian primordial relationship]. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz
- 李艷. 汉藏—高加索超级语系：斯塔罗斯金的论证. 超级语系—历史比较语言学的新理论 第1版. 北京: 中國社會科學出版社. 2012-03. ISBN 978-7-5161-0613-6.
