德內-高加索語系

德內－高加索語系（Dené-Caucasian），或譯作達內－高加索語系，亦稱漢－高加索語系（Sino–Caucasian）^{[注 1]}，是一個假設的超語系，包括漢藏語系、布魯夏斯基語、葉尼塞語系、北高加索語系、北美的納－德內語系，甚至是歐洲的瓦斯科尼亞語系（英語：Vasconic languages）（包括巴斯克語）。有時蘇美爾語和阿爾吉克語系（阿爾岡昆－瓦卡希語系（英語：Algonquian–Wakashan languages））也被歸入其中。該語系存在與否還處在爭議中，大部分關於該超語系的研究在20世紀90年代之後才開始展開。

德內－高加索語系
有爭議的超語系
地理分佈	不連續地分佈於歐亞大陸和北美大陸
譜系學分類	德內－台語系（？） 德內－高加索語系
原始語言	原始德內－高加索語
分支	納－德內語系（包括海達語） 葉尼塞語系 北高加索語系 漢藏語系 布魯夏斯基語 瓦斯科尼亞語系（英語：Vasconic languages） 伊特魯利亞語（英語：Tyrsenian languages）（有時包括） 蘇美爾語（有時包括） 阿爾吉克語系（不常包括）
–
Glottolog	無

2008年語言學家愛德華·瓦伊達提出了一個範圍更小的超語系假說，即德內－葉尼塞語系，該假說認為西伯利亞的葉尼塞語系與北美的納－德內語系存在同源關係，該假說獲得了許多歷史語言學家的認可。但至今，多數語言學家仍對德內－高加索語系假說持懷疑或否定態度。^{[1][2][3][4][5]}

研究歷史

20世紀時，特隆貝蒂（英語：Alfredo Trombetti）、薩丕爾、布雷齊斯特內（英語：Robert Bleichsteiner）、斯瓦迪士和托普洛夫（英語：Vladimir Toporov）等學者先後提出類似於德內－高加索語系的假說，並對該問題進行了相關探索。20世紀80年代，蘇聯語言學家斯塔羅斯金提出漢－高加索語系假說，指出高加索語、葉尼塞語和漢藏語可能具有同源關係，並提供了大量的語言學證據^[6]。80年代末，本特森也加入到這項假說的研究中來。

漢－高加索語系的成員自該假說提出後就不斷擴充。1991年，尼古拉耶夫證明了高加索語與納－德內語的發生學關係，從而在該超語系假說中加入納－德內語^[7]。1996年，本特森（英語：John Bengtson）將瓦斯科尼亞語系（英語：Vasconic languages）（這一語系包括巴斯克語、阿基坦語甚至是伊比利亞語（英語：Iberian language））納入該超語系假說中，1997年，本特森又將布魯夏斯基語納入。擴充後的假說被稱為「德內－高加索語系」。^[8]

2005年，斯塔羅斯金進一步提出「德內－台語系」假說，該假說假定德內－高加索語系和澳語係為德內－台語系的兩個分支，這個更為宏大的假說將漢藏語、北高加索語、侗台語、苗瑤語、南亞語、南島語等許多語系包含進來。斯塔羅斯金還猜測德內－台語系可能於公元前一萬年分化，形成了德內－高加索語系和澳語系兩大分支^[9]。

存在證據

參見：原始德內－高加索語和原始德內－高加索語詞根（英語：Proto-Dené-Caucasian_rootse）

以斯塔羅斯金為首的莫斯科學派堅信「基本詞彙對應是證明發生學關係的關鍵」，他們因此以語言年代學為基礎，依照詞彙對應等為證據對德內－高加索語系展開論證，但是他們並不注重考古學等旁證^[9]。至2005年，斯塔羅斯金提供了956組詞彙對應形式，以證明漢藏語、高加索語等語言之間存在同源關係。其中有一部分詞彙原始形態存在明顯的相似，如：^[10]

詞彙	原始高加索語	原始漢藏語
飛	*pɨrV	*phur~*bhur
毛髮	*c'ɦěme	*chām
毛髮	*kɨ̌wrV	*kra
葉子	*tˡ'ǎp	*lǎp

有些詞彙原始形態不甚近似，但在高加索語中的語音變化卻與漢藏語一致，如「血」一詞在高加索語系的達吉語中讀 "ħi" ，而在漢藏語系的杜密語中讀 "hi" ^[10]。除詞彙對應外，斯塔羅斯金及其同事還發現了高加索語與漢藏語之間的數種語音對應和形態對應形式。在語音對應方面，斯塔羅斯金認為原始德內－高加索語邊塞音/tˡ/、/dˡ/在原始漢藏語中分化，詞首保留邊音/l/、/tˡ/，詞尾則變成軟齶音/k/；斯塔羅斯金亦發現原始高加索語的緊音與葉尼塞語的喉塞音/ʔ/對應，並猜測這種對應與原始德內－高加索語的超音段成分有關。^[11]

語系樹建議

斯塔羅斯金及其同事的觀點

斯塔羅斯金等莫斯科學派語言學家堅信人類語言的單一起源論，並開展了名為「巴別塔計劃」的研究項目，斯塔羅斯金本人提出了「漢－高加索語系」並認為納－德內語可能屬於漢－高加索語系，其同事則展開了漢－高加索語系與納－德內語等其它語系的比較。^[8]根據研究成果，斯塔羅斯金及其同事整理出如下的譜系樹，並通過修訂語言年代學估算了德內－高加索語系各語言的分化時間^[12]：

德內－高加索語系 公元前8700年	漢－瓦斯科尼亞語 Sino‑Vasconic 公元前7900年 漢－高加索語系 公元前6200年 高加索－漢－葉尼塞語 公元前5900年 漢－葉尼塞語 公元前5100年   漢藏語系 Sino-Tibetan     葉尼塞語系 Yeniseian       北高加索語系 North Caucasian       布魯沙斯基語 Burushaski       瓦斯科尼亞語系（英語：Vasconic languages） Vasconic       納－德內語系 Na-Dené

本特森的觀點

本特森(John D. Bengtson)把巴斯克語、高加索語及布魯夏斯基語組合成為大高加索語系(Macro-Caucasian family)^[13]。本特森並未對大高加索語系之外的德內－高加索語系分支畫出詳細的譜系樹，而是將這些分支暫時直接放在德內－高加索語系之下，因為他認為目前對這些分支的研究尚不成熟。本特森也留意到蘇美爾語在地理上與其西支及東支分享着相同的等語線^[8][14]。

德內－高加索語系 Dené‑Caucasian	大高加索語族 The Macro‑Caucasian family 巴斯克－高加索語   瓦斯科尼亞語系 Vasconic     北高加索語系 North Caucasian       布魯沙斯基語 Burushaski       蘇美爾語（可能） Sumerian     漢藏語系 Sino-Tibetan     葉尼塞語系 Yeniseian     納－德內語系 Na-Dené

參見

• 德內－葉尼塞語門
• 語言系屬分類
• 祖語

註釋

1. 漢－高加索語系的範圍與德內－高加索語系有所不同，漢－高加索語系通常不包括納－德內語和瓦斯科尼亞語系，見該章節。

引用

1. Sanchez-Mazas, Alicia; Blench, Roger; Ross, Malcolm D.; Peiros, Ilia; Lin, Marie. Past Human Migrations in East Asia: Matching Archaeology, Linguistics and Genetics. 2008-07-25 [2020-01-28]. ISBN 9781134149629. （原始內容存檔於2020-03-28）.
2. Campbell, Lyle（英語：Lyle Campbell） (1997). American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 286-288
3. Goddard, Ives（英語：Ives Goddard） (1996). "The Classification of the Native Languages of North America". In Ives Goddard, ed., "Languages". Vol. 17 of William Sturtevant, ed., Handbook of North American Indians. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. pg. 318
4. Trask, R. L.（英語：Larry Trask） (2000). The Dictionary of Historical and Comparative Linguistics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. pg. 85
5. Dalby, Andrew (1998). Dictionary of Languages. New York: Columbia University Press. pg. 434
6. 參見 Starostin 1984, Starostin 1991
7. 參見 Nikola(y)ev 1991
8. 李艷 2012，第237-239頁
9. 李艷 2012，第241頁
10. 李艷 2012，第242-247頁
11. 李艷 2012，第248-251頁
12. 參見 The preliminary phylogenetic tree according to the Tower of Babel Project
13. 見 Bengtson 1997a
14. 見 Bengtson 1997b

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• VAJDA, Edward J. 2000c. Ket verb morphology and its parallels with Athabaskan–Eyak–Tlingit: evidence of a genetic link. – Paper read at: Athabaskan Language Conference, Moricetown, BC, June 9, 2000
• VAJDA, Edward J. 2000d. Athabaskan–Eyak–Tlingit and Yeniseian: lexical and phonological parallels. Read at: 39th Conference on American Indian Languages, San Francisco, Nov. 14-18, 2000
• VAN DRIEM, George, 2001. "The Languages of the Himalayas." Brill, Leiden.
• VOVIN, Alexander, 2002. "Building a 'bum-pa for Sino-Caucasian." Journal of Chinese Linguistics 30.1: 154–171.
• VOVIN, Alexander, 1997. "The Comparative Method and Ventures Beyond Sino-Tibetan." Journal of Chinese Linguistics 25.2: 308–336.
• WERNER, Heinrich K. (2004): Zur jenissejisch-indianischen Urverwandtschaft [On the Yeniseian-[American] Indian primordial relationship]. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz
• 李艷. 汉藏—高加索超级语系：斯塔罗斯金的论证. 超级语系—历史比较语言学的新理论 第1版. 北京: 中國社會科學出版社. 2012-03. ISBN 978-7-5161-0613-6.

外部連結

• Dené–Caucasian ethno-linguistic map （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館）
• The Tower of Babel （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館） (site in English and Russian including Proposed family tree （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館） and Word-final resonants in Sino-Caucasian （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館）)
• A Final (?) Response to the Basque Debate in Mother Tongue 1 （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館） (GIF)
• Merritt Ruhlen on the Dené–Caucasian hypothesis(PDF)