無領袖抵抗（Leaderless resistance）或幽靈組織架構（phantom cell structure）是一種舉事策略，指小型的獨立團體（秘密小組）或個人（孤狼）挑戰一個既定的敵手，例如：法律、經濟制度、社會秩序或政府。無領袖抵抗可以包含非暴力抗議和公民不服從反抗行為，以及財產破壞、恐怖主義和其他暴力活動等任何形式。
無領袖抵抗缺乏垂直、雙向性的指揮聯結，通常在沒有上級領導的情況下運作；[1] 但是他們會有一個共同的目標，將他們與社會運動聯繫起來，並從中學習到意識形態。[2]
無領袖抵抗已被廣泛運用於各種社會運動，包括動物權利運動、激進環保主義運動、反全球化運動、反墮胎運動、抵禦軍事入侵、無政府主義組織、反殖民主義、恐怖主義、種族優越主義和仇恨團體。[2]
主要特徵
無領袖抵抗包含的人數通常很少，可能是一個孤獨的個體，也可能是一小群人。這種結構有個典型的基本特徵，就是每個為共同目標而行動的小組之間，沒有明確清楚的聯繫溝通，成員們通常知之甚少，甚至全然不知，還有誰也在為他們相同的目標而活動。[1]
有些無領袖抵抗可能具有象徵性的領袖。[1] 這個人可以是公眾人物、匿名化名者或具有啟發性的勵志作家，他為運動挑選主要攻擊目標和對象，但並沒有實際操縱或執行任何計劃。大眾媒體在這種情況下，經常會製造積極影響的反饋循環，通過發表運動榜樣的宣言，在潛在舉事者的心中灌輸運動的動機、理念和假想的同情心；相反，這些舉事者又會賦予象徵領袖更大的權威性。[1] 雖然初步看來，這可能大致類似於垂直指揮結構，但它很明顯是單向結構，即名義上的領袖做出宣言，運動分子有可能對這個號召作出反應，但是這兩個層級之間並沒有任何確定的聯繫。[2]
由於這種結構既沒有可以被摧毀的中央機構，也沒有能夠被滲透的各小組之間的連接；結果就是，無領袖抵抗組織不會受到內奸和反叛者的任何影響。因此，與採用更傳統等級制度的運動相比，政府機構要想遏制無領袖抵抗運動的發展，要比阻止傳統的階層組織更加困難。[1]
由於它不勻稱的特性，以及它通常是在面對權力不平衡時採取的戰略，無領袖抵抗和游擊戰有着許多相似共通之處。然而，後者通常保留某些形式的有組織化的雙向領導機制，而且往往比無領袖抵抗的個體行動，有着較廣大人數的行動。在一些情況下，大規模的無領袖運動可能發展出互相密和的暴動或者游擊運動，例如第二次世界大戰中的南斯拉夫人民解放軍和游擊隊。
無領袖抵抗通常涉及暴力手段的抵抗，但不限於此。非暴力團體也可以使用相同的組織結構，進行創作、印刷和分發地下出版物，利用英特網對政治敵手發起自我傳播的抵制，維護一個不受政府稅收體制和銀行交易記錄控制的替代電子貨幣等。[3]
歷史
無領袖抵抗的概念源於1950年代初期，由美國前情報官員尤留思·路易斯·阿莫斯上校提出。[4][5] 他作為一位反共產主義者，將無領袖抵抗視為中情局支持的抵抗組織滲透和摧毀蘇聯控制東歐國家的一種手段。[6][5]
這個概念在1983年反政府三K黨成員路易·畢姆的一篇文章中重新出現並流行起來，1992年再次出現，並在極端右翼分子的落基山集會上作為主旨發表。[7][4][8] 畢姆提倡無領袖抵抗是白人民族主義繼續與美國政府鬥爭的一種手段，儘管權力和資源存在巨大的不平衡。[5]
畢姆認為傳統的金字塔等級結構，對於從事反抗政府鬥爭的參與者們而言，極其危險，因為在它很容易泄露指揮鏈；然而一個不太危險的可操作方法，是說服志同道合的同志組成獨立的小組，彼此之間沒有密切的聯絡，但基本上朝着同一個方向行動。[1]
更多較近期的例子包括：黃背心運動、反抗滅絕和＃MeToo，似乎都是以無領袖抵抗方式出現，或許是因為社交媒體的盛興，將有共同不滿情緒的人聚集在一起，即使他們缺乏有組織的領導者。[9]
實踐
動物解放
動物解放首個記錄在案的直接行動發生於1824年，最初由「Band of Mercy」發起，經過漫長延展成為無領袖抵抗，目標是阻止獵狐者。[10] Inspired by this group and after seeing a pregnant deer driven into the village by fox hunters to be killed, John Prestige decided to actively oppose this sport and formed the Hunt Saboteurs Association in 1964. Within a year, a leaderless model of hunt-sabotage groups was formed across the United Kingdom.[10]
A new Band of Mercy was then formed in 1972. It used direct action to liberate animals and cause economic sabotage against those thought to be abusing animals. Ronnie Lee and others changed the name of the movement to the Animal Liberation Front (ALF) in 1976 and adopted a leaderless resistance model focusing broadly on animal liberation.[11]
Earth First! and the environmental movement in the 1980s also adopted the leaderless resistance model.[12] An animal liberation movement advocating violence emerged with the name Animal Rights Militia (ARM) in 1982. Letter bombs were sent to the then British Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher. Two years later the name Hunt Retribution Squad (HRS) was also used.[13][14]
The Earth Liberation Front (ELF) formed in 1992, breaking from Earth First! when that organization decided to focus on public direct action, instead of the ecotage that the ELF participated in.[15] A violent group called the Justice Department was established in 1993, and in 1994 sent razor blades to hunters such as Prince Charles and to animal researchers.[16][17]
In 1999 the leaderless resistance strategy was employed by animal liberation organisations like Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty (SHAC), which was formed from the Consort beagles campaign and Save the Hill Grove Cats to close down Huntingdon Life Sciences (HLS). Despite claiming successes[18] leaderless animal liberation and environmental movements generally lack the broad popular support that often occurs in strictly political or military conflicts. The Revolutionary Cells--Animal Liberation Brigade (RCALB) appeared in 2003 and sent pipe bombs to Chiron Corporation and used incendiary devices against other targets, whilst a year later on the south coast of Dorset, the Lobster Liberation Front (LLF) was founded.[19]
Within a few years of the victories claimed by the SHAC, other campaigns against animal testing laboratories emerged. At the same time, SPEAK Campaigns and the more radical ALF militants, Oxford Arson Squad began their campaigns towards the same goal: to end Oxford University's animal research.
In April 2009, the Militant Forces Against Huntingdon Life Sciences (MFAH) became active. With the ALF, they began targeting HLS customer and financial Directors, as well as company property. Since then, groups have reported over a dozen actions in Europe, including painting homes, burning cars, and grave desecration. Militants, however, oppose ALF ideology, instead believing in any necessary action to prevent suffering at HLS's laboratories.[20]
激進伊斯蘭主義
Leaderless resistance is also often well-suited to terrorist objectives. The Islamist organization Al-Qaeda uses a typical figurehead/leaderless cell structure. The organization itself may be pyramidal, but sympathizers who act on its pronouncements often do so spontaneously and independently.
Given the small, clandestine character of terrorist cells, it is easy to assume they necessarily constitute leaderless resistance models. When there is bidirectional communication with external leadership, however, the label is inappropriate. The men who executed the bombings of the London Underground on July 7, 2005 constituted a leaderless resistance cell in that they purportedly acted out of sympathy for Islamic fundamentalism but under their own auspices. The hijackers involved in the September 11 attacks, by contrast, allegedly received training, direction, and funding from Al-Qaeda, and are not properly designated a leaderless cell.
新納粹與白人民族主義
The concept of leaderless resistance remains important to far-right thinking in the United States, as a proposed response to perceived federal government over-reach at the expense of individual rights. Simson Garfinkel, however, found in his research that for the most part the far right seldom used this tactic. Timothy McVeigh is one example in the United States. McVeigh worked in a small cell which based its attack on motivations widespread among far-right anti-government groups and the militia movement.
Leaderless resistance has been advocated by white supremacist groups such as White Aryan Resistance (WAR) and the British neo-Nazi Combat 18 (C18). The modern Ku Klux Klan is also credited with having developed a leaderless resistance model.[21] Troy Southgate also advocated forms of leaderless resistance during his time as a leading activist in the National Revolutionary Faction and a pioneer of National-Anarchism. James Mason a former American Nazi Party member and neo-Nazi was a proponent of the idea of "leaderless resistance" as detailed in SIEGE a collection of writings from the defunct National Socialist Liberation Front (NSLF) which advocated violence against political opponents, Jews and non-whites of which he deemed to be the supposedly Jewish controlled entity he referred to as "The System" which has since been embraced by the terrorist group Atomwaffen Division (AWD) in the modern day.
Stormfront, Aryan Nations, and Hammerskin Nation (HSN) link to Beam's Leaderless Resistance. These groups promote lone wolf actions. While nominally decrying violence, the sites praise the man who "practices what he preaches, and who backs up his words with his deeds."[22] Stormfront, while regretting the loss of life, explains how Benjamin Nathaniel Smith's 1999 killing spree was compelled by circumstances. The World Church of the Creator (WCOTC) gave a mixed message, calling Smith "a selfless man who gave his life in the resistance to Jewish/mud tyranny," but noting "the Church does not condone his acts."[22]
Examples of modern-day leaderless resistance/lone-wolf terrorism include:
- 1999 Los Angeles Jewish Community Center shooting
- 1999 murders of Gary Matson and Winfield Mowder
- 2008 Knoxville Unitarian Universalist church shooting
- 2009 United States Holocaust Memorial Museum shooting
- 2011 Norway attacks
- 2012 Wisconsin Sikh temple shooting
- 2014 Overland Park Jewish Community Center shooting
- 2015 Charleston church shooting
- 2015 Lafayette shooting
- 2016 Murder of Jo Cox
- 2017 Quebec City mosque shooting
- 2018 Pittsburgh synagogue shooting
- 2019 Christchurch mosque shootings
- 2019 Escondido mosque fire and Poway synagogue shooting
- 2019 El Paso shooting
- 2022 Buffalo shooting
- 2022 Colorado Springs nightclub shooting
激進環保主義
Leaderless resistance emerged in the environmental movement in 1976 when John Hanna and others as the Environmental Life Force (ELF) (also known now as the original ELF) used explosive and incendiary devices. The group conducted armed actions in northern California and Oregon, later disbanding in 1978 following Hanna's arrest for placing incendiary devices on seven crop-dusters at the Salinas, California airport on May Day, 1977.[23] A decade and a half later this form of guerrilla warfare resurfaced using the same acronym.
In 1980 Earth First! was founded by Dave Foreman and others to confront environmental destruction, primarily of the American West. Inspired by the Edward Abbey novel The Monkey Wrench Gang, Earth First! made use of such techniques as treesitting[24] and treespiking[25] to stop logging companies, as well as other activities targeted towards mining, road construction,[26] suburban development, and energy companies.
The organization was committed to nonviolent ecotage techniques from the group's inception. Others split from the movement in the 1990s, including the Earth Liberation Front (ELF) in 1992, which named itself after the Animal Liberation Front (ALF) which had formed in the 1970s.[27] Three years later in Canada, inspired by the ELF in Europe, the first Earth Liberation direct action occurred, but this time as the Earth Liberation Army (ELA), a similar movement who use ecotage and monkeywrenching as a tool.
A series of actions earned ELF the label of eco-terrorists,[28][29] including the burning of a ski resort in Vail, Colorado in 1998, and the burning of an SUV dealership in Oregon in 1999. In the same year the ELA made headlines by setting fire to the Vail Resorts in Washington, D.C., causing $12 million in damages.[30] The defendants in that case were later charged in the FBI's "Operation Backfire" with other crimes; this was later named by environmentalists as the Green Scare, alluding to the Red Scare periods of fear over communist infiltration of U.S.[31][32]
Following the September 11, 2001 attacks several laws were passed increasing the penalty for ecoterrorism, and the U.S. Congress held hearings on the activity of groups such as the ELF. To date no one has been killed as a result of an ELF or ALF action, and both groups forbid harming human or non-human life.[33]
In 2005 the FBI announced that the ELF was America's greatest domestic terrorist threat, responsible for over 1,200 "criminal incidents" amounting to tens of millions of dollars in damage to property.[34] The United States Department of Homeland Security confirmed this with regards to both the ALF and ELF.[35]
Plane Stupid launched in 2005, an attempt to combat the growing airport expansions in the UK by using direct action. A year later the first Camp for Climate Action was held, with 600 people attending a protest called Reclaim Power and then converging on Drax Power Station in North Yorkshire in an attempt to shut it down. There were thirty-eight arrests, with four breaching the fence and the railway line being blocked.[36][37]
組織
- Camp for Climate Action
- Earth First!
- Earth Liberation Army (ELA)
- Earth Liberation Front (ELF)
- Environmental Life Force
- Plane Stupid
- Antifa
反墮胎運動
對策
網絡分析
Leaderless resistance social networks are potentially vulnerable to social network analysis and its derivative, link analysis. Link analysis of social networks is the fundamental reason for the ongoing legislative push in the U.S. and the European Union for mandatory retention of telecommunication traffic data and for limiting access to anonymous prepaid cellphones, as the stored data contain important network analysis clues.
Network analysis was successfully used by French Colonel Yves Godard to break the Algerian resistance between 1955 and 1957 and force them to cease their bombing campaigns. The Algerian conflict may be better described as guerrilla in nature rather than leaderless resistance (see Modern Warfare by Col. Roger Trinquier), and this illustrates the weakness of cell-structured insurgents when compared to leaderless ones. The mapping data were obtained by the use of informants and torture and were used to obtain the identities of important individuals in the resistance; these individuals were then assassinated, which disrupted the Algerian resistance networks. The more irreplaceable the individual is in the adversary's network, the greater the damage is done to the network by removing them.
無領袖抵抗的優勢
Traditional organizations leave behind much evidence of their activities, such as money trails, and training and recruitment material. Leaderless resistances, supported more by ideologies than organizations, generally lack such traces. The effects of their operations, as reported by the mass media, act as a sort of messaging and recruitment advertising.
Paul Joosse argues that leaderless resistance movements can avoid the ideological disputes and infighting that plague radical groups. They do this by limiting interaction to the virtual realm.[2]
The internet provides counter-insurgents with further challenges. Individual cells (and even a single person can be a cell) can communicate over the internet, anonymously or semi-anonymously sharing information online, to be found by others through well-known websites. Even when it is legally and technically possible to ascertain who accessed what, it is often practically impossible to discern in a reasonable time frame who is a real threat and who is just curious, a journalist, or a web crawler.
Despite these advantages, leaderless resistance is often unstable. If the actions are not frequent enough or not successful, the stream of publicity, which serves as the recruiting, motivation, and coordination drives for other cells, diminishes. On the other hand, if the actions are too successful, support groups and other social structures will form that are vulnerable to network analysis.流行影響
英國作家克萊夫·埃格爾頓於1970年發行小說《抵抗的一部分》（A Piece of Resistance），2004年在美國以《永不投降》（Never Surrender）為名再版，描述對蘇聯占領英格蘭的抵抗。
美國作家約翰·羅斯於1996年發行小說《意料外的結果》（Unintended Consequences），描述在華盛頓遠郊在經歷長達幾十年的恐嚇以後，終於在美國腹地成功完成的一次無領袖抵抗的起義。
另見
參考文獻
延伸閱讀
外部連結
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