更古老的以法蓮教可能認可獨神論，由於上主多次被稱為萬神之神，因此其可能認為異教所崇拜的一些神祇是真實的，但其認為祂們都是不值得被崇拜的偽神，唯有上主是應該被敬拜的眞神[2]，或者將祂們視為與天使及星辰一同組成天軍但被無知的異教徒視為神祇的天祇（mal'ak）。《依撒意亞先知書》第二十四章預言説天上的萬軍及地上的君王都會被關押並被懲罰[3]。此外，宗教學家就關於《詩篇》第八十二章（英語：Psalms 82）所提及的被上主（英語：God in Judaism）譴責的、組成神聖議會（英語：Divine Council）的神般生靈（Godlike Creatur）的身份的問題爭論不休，一些學者認為其可能是指有權勢的凡人或被任命為守護特定民族的天祗的護國天使。信奉基督教的著名宗教史學家麥可·海瑟（英語：Michael S. Heiser）博士聲稱這一章所提及的衆神確實是指天上的諸神，而非凡人或三一神的其他位格，但他聲稱這不意味着其在宣揚多神論，原因是《塔納赫》把這些所謂的次級神祗描述為原本被上主命令去掌管天下萬國 卻因反抗天主的統治一事而被受到懲罰的天上的權君（powers in the heavens）[4]。此外，《列王紀(上)》第二十二章提到米該雅先知看見天上萬軍（英語：Heavenly host）侍立在上主面前一事，當中包括被上主派去引誘撒瑪利亞王國國王阿哈布帶兵攻打亞蘭王國的諸靈，不知道後者是不是天使。《妥拉》所提及的哈-撒但（Ha-Satan）被視為一位魔般天使（diabolical angel），負責試探凡人，但值得注意的是祂是奉上主之命去行事，而不是在直接對抗上主。現今猶太教在關於魔鬼及鬼魔的觀點上有不少分歧，一些猶太教徒認為祂們是真實存在的，另一些猶太教徒認為關於祂們的故事只是隱喻。
Top God. TV Tropes. [2024-10-26]. The Judeo-Christian God could be considered a god of gods if you consider the angels and demons as lesser gods, which would make the Archangels as kings of the gods. Early Jewish thought seemed to consider all gods as being real, but all except Yahweh are evil impostors, with Yahweh being the one true god. Later though, in Jeremiah, God only refers to some of the gods as actual creatures that he will punish, like Amon, while most, like Chemosh, are idols based on someone's imagination. Starting in the beginnings of the Medieval Period and continuing into today, this separated into two approaches in most of Europe: many European (and American) Christian church bureaucracies have taken the official view or Sacred Tradition that other (pagan) gods are merely disguises for demons, adding that our (humanity and angels) task is to become gods through an obedience to God and atonement (for humans) by which He will do that; whereas many European (and American) Christian thinkers and philosophers have taken instead the view that the gods of other religions were angelic underlings of God who had been mistaken for deities by "less enlightened" peoples. This latter viewpoint is most familiar to American readers in the Christian cosmologies presented by J.R.R. Tolkien in his famous Legendarium with its Valar, Maiar, and Istari and by C.S. Lewis in his Narnia Chronicles which include appearances by the wine god Bacchus, an untamed river god, the living embodiment of Time, and a Father Christmas praising Aslan!
Michael S. Heiser. Divine Council 101: Lesson 2: The elohim of Psalm 82 – gods or men?(PDF). Lastly, verses such as Isaiah 24:21 (「In that day the LORD will punish the powers in the heavens above and the kings on the earth below」) clearly distinguish between the divine beings of Yahweh’s host and earthly rulers. What this means is that the Hebrew Bible had a definite way of distinguishing the divine beings (the powers – plural – in heaven) from humans. It makes little sense to make Psalm 82 unclear if such a contrast between gods and humans were the goal. Why confuse people by using elohim if you wanted to refer to humans?
Vargo, Andrew. Rebuttals to Islamic Awareness : Rahmanan (RHMNN) - An Ancient South Arabian Moon God?. Answering Islam. [2024-10-09]（英語）. The "Islamic Awareness" team attempts to convince us that Muhammad's ar-Rahman is really no different than the Christian and Jewish uses of similar epithets for God. As Sam Shamoun pointed out in his article on ar-Rahman, it is clear that the people of Mecca did not recognize ar-Rahman as the God of the Christians and the Jews. The Christian inscriptions presented by the "Islamic Awareness" clearly shows that the authors were describing the Triune God – not Muhammad's concept of Allah.
Nattan, Stephen Van. Appendix 5: Is Allah the moon god as claimed by Robert Morey?. Hajiallah.com. Allah, Divine or Demonic?. [First published in 1995] [2024-10-13]（英語）. As a side note here, Robert Morey is of the Reformed church background. It is a curious thing then why he chooses to use Bible versions other than the Bibles of the Reformers-- The King James Bible and Luther's Bible. I also note that he has a Crusader's Club. Why choose this imagery when the Roman Catholic Whore used the virtual same title for her mongrel mass of filthy soldiers who attacked the Islamic peoples of the Middle East long ago? Why? The word "crusader" is not a biblical word.
Nattan, Stephen Van. Robert Morey-- Arab Basher-- Morey's "allah is the Moon god" Heresy. Hajiallah.com. Allah, Divine or Demonic?. [First published in 1995] [2024-10-13]（英語）. Dr. Robert Morey of http://www.faithdefenders.com is known for his radical views of indorsing Christians to bomb the Muslim city of Mecca in Saudi Arabia (so much for Christianity being peaceful and loving), and of spinning the infamous Moon God Theory which was easily refuted here. Because of his extremist views against Islam, he has been embraced by many fanatical Evangelical Christian groups.
Nattan, Stephen Van. Chapter Seventeen － Mohammed's Claims for Himself. Hajiallah.com. Allah, Divine or Demonic?. [First published in 1995] [2024-10-14]（英語）. We are reminded at once of Mohammed's "virtue" as he consummated his battlefield "marriage" to a Jewish captive, Safiya, in a sand dune with the gore and filth of battle all over him. Virtuous actions no doubt, though it is today called rape-- virtuous, even though he broke his own Hadith sharia law to wait until after her next monthly!
Nattan, Stephen Van. Appendix Ten: What do Islam and Mainline Christianity Have in Common?. Hajiallah.com. Allah, Divine or Demonic?. [First published in 1995] [2024-10-14]（英語）. The standard of Islam is similar. Muslim men would never allow their wives or daughters to go out uncovered, and they make sure they are modest at all times. These same men, when out of town on business, will visit whores and sodomite pimps, and they will always visit restaurants that provide belly dancers. This goes back to Mohammed. He would not permit the women to go uncovered in public, but he married a nine year old girl and consummated the marriage at once. This would be seen today as wicked, but in the prophet, well, it is OK because he was so holy in other areas of his life. ... This is why Osama bin Laden is approved by nearly all Muslims. There is nothing in the teachings of Mohammed and the Koran which approves or disapproves of what Osama did. So, the best Muslim can rejoice at the death and suffering in the World Trade Center. Did not Mohammed exalt Jihad in the Hadith. The number of Hadith on Jihad is greater than any other subject in the Hadith.
