两栖动物 是一种变温 、卵生 、营水陆两栖的肉食性四足类 脊椎动物 (部分类群四足退化),在生物分类学 上构成名为两栖纲 (学名 :Amphibia )的分类单元 。特征为表皮裸露,无鳞甲、毛羽等覆盖,皮肤通过分泌粘液以保持身体湿润;四足有趾而无爪。所产的卵缺乏卵壳 保湿,因此需产在水中。幼体出生后必须在水中生活,用鳃 呼吸,成年后可在陆地上生活,用肺 和皮肤呼吸,主要捕食小型无脊椎动物 。
Quick Facts 科学分类, 下级级分类 ...
Close
两栖动物相信起源于泥盆纪 晚期,于石炭纪 爆发[ 2] [ 3] [ 4] :87 。传统的分类学观点中,将两栖动物化石分为三个亚纲,分别是[ 5] :迷齿亚纲 (labyrinthodontia )[ 2] :87 、壳椎亚纲 及滑体亚纲 。
近年认为壳椎亚纲是与羊膜动物 有关或是其的祖先[ 6] ,即它们是已灭绝 (但不包括羊膜动物)的多系分类[ 7] ,或是一个非常接近羊膜动物祖先(非两栖类)的单系群 [ 8] 。
两栖动物由泥盆纪 晚期的肉鳍鱼类 演化而来,是四足类动物从水栖发展到陆栖的中间过渡类型,进化程度介于高等鱼类和羊膜动物 之间。早期两栖动物在石炭纪 繁盛一时,分化出许多大型种类,为淡水和陆地上的顶级捕食者,但由于食性较为单一,且对各种水体的适应性不及鱼类,陆地生存能力又逊于后起的羊膜动物,自中生代 以来两栖动物逐渐衰落,至今大部分种类都已灭绝。现存的两栖动物均属于滑体亚纲 ,多数体型较小,包括青蛙 、蟾蜍 (蛤蟆)、蝾螈 、大鲵 (娃娃鱼)等,共计约8000种,已描述7000余种,在脊椎动物中仍属大类,物种多样性 仅次于辐鳍鱼类 和羊膜动物。其在交配后,能产卵400馀枚,数量惊人。
传统的分类体系中,除羊膜动物外的所有四足类动物都归为两栖纲,在此定义下部份两栖动物为羊膜动物的祖先。然而,各类羊膜动物(合弓纲 和蜥形纲 )独立于两栖纲之外,使得传统的两栖纲成为并系群 (即缺少部分演化支 ,未囊括所有后代),因此现行分类缩小了两栖纲的涵盖范围,仅限于四足总纲 下蛙形类 的一支,与羊膜动物 所属的爬行形类 分为两支,互不相关,切断了传统分类中两栖动物与羊膜动物的演化关系,这一新的定义使部份早期四足类动物不再隶属两栖动物。
两栖纲
†离片椎目 (Temnospondyli )
滑体亚纲 (Lissamphibia )
无足目 (Apoda ),又称蚓螈目 或裸蛇目 (Gymnophiona ):约5科 、34属 、170种
有尾目 (Urodela ),又称蝾螈目 (Salamandriformes ):约9科、60属、358种,如娃娃鱼 、蝾螈
无尾目 (Anura ),又称蛙形目 (Raniformes ):约20科、303属、3700种,如青蛙 、蟾蜍
†异螈目 (Allocaudata )
(注:† 表示已灭绝)
史前类群壳椎亚纲 (Lepospondyli)也曾被归类于此,但实际上这一演化支更接近羊膜动物 ,属于爬行形类 。
解剖了的青蛙:1. 右心房,2. 肺,3. 主动脉,4. 大量的卵子 ,5. 结肠,6. 左心房,7. 心室,8. 胃,9. 肝,10. 胆囊,11. 小肠,12泄殖腔
大部分两栖动物都能透过弹出口腔内可伸展的舌头去捕捉猎物,其带有黏性的舌尖能很好的黏著猎物并将其带回口中,而无须动用颚骨半分。一些物种会以惯性 去协助它们吞咽,它们会反复将头部快速伸前以制造推力,从而令惯性将猎物吞进食道中。由于大部分的两栖动物都不会咀嚼猎物,而是整支的吞进食道中,因此它们多有一个特别大的胃部,呕吐的时候则会直接将胃吐出。不长的食道 内部有纤毛 协助将食物推往胃中,口腔内及咽喉 中的腺体亦会分泌黏液 去平滑食道。胃部则会透过分泌几丁质酶 (Chitinase)去消化节肢动物 的几丁质 外壳。
两栖动物繁殖 时候需要水,因为它们的卵 要生在水里。刚从卵里出来的幼体形态似鱼(如蝌蚪 )用鳃呼吸,有侧线 ,依靠尾鳍 游泳。然后经变态 才能上陆生活。一般来说,它们最后会离开水,但是并非所有两栖动物都是这样。它们成长过程中最明显的是长出四条腿 来在陆地上行走,另外还有:
两栖动物都是食肉的,一般以蠕虫 、蜘蛛 和昆虫 为食。较大一点的两栖动物还以小的爬行动物 、哺乳动物 甚至螃蟹 为食物。
两栖动物拥有柔软的身体及薄的皮肤,既没有爪,也没有防御性的硬甲或刺状物,令它们有没有防卫机制的错觉。但事实上它们却演化出不同的防卫机制去保护自己。蝾螈及青蛙的第一道防线为它们所制造的粘液分泌。这令它们的皮肤湿润并且难于捕捉。这些分泌物除了黏稠外,亦有难吃的味道,甚至带有毒性。[ 10] 有观察纪录发现蛇在吞食非洲爪蟾 时被逼张大嘴巴,从而让青蛙有逃走的机会。[ 11] 有关蚓螈在这方面的所知甚少,但已知扁尾盲游蚓螈 (Typhlonectes compressicauda )在巴西进行的一项实验中此种的毒素能杀死猎食它的鱼类。[ 12] 部分的蝾螈的皮肤是有毒的。在北美洲生活的粗皮渍螈 (Taricha granulosa )及其同属物种均能制造出强力的神经毒素——河豚毒素 ,这种为已知非蛋白质最毒的物质。在测试中,鱼类、青蛙、爬虫类、鸟类及哺乳类动物均对其无招架之力。[ 13] [ 14] 唯一已知的猎食者为束带蛇 (Thamnophis sirtalis )。当在与粗皮渍螈共同生活的地方出现的束带蛇族落是少数能抵受这种毒性的生物。它们因基因突变去改变它们的免疫系统而适应了这种毒性,使它们能以粗皮渍螈为食而不受到任何伤害。[ 15] 这种关系构成它们之间的共同演化 。当束带蛇演化出更好的防御能力后,粗皮渍螈也会加强它们的毒素去抵抗。诸如此类猎物与捕食者间不断精进毒素与抗毒能力的共演化现象被视为“军备竞赛”,使双方不断演化出更毒之毒素及更强之解毒能力。这种互相施加演化压力而改变彼此演化方向的现象固然为共演化的范例。[ 14] 部分青蛙与蟾蜍也是有毒的,而它们的藏毒腺体多在颈的两侧及背部的疣上。这些区域都是显而易见,以向攻击者表示警号。此外这些分泌物亦会带来特别的气味或引起不同的物理及神经方面的症状。在极少量已被研究的两栖动物中,已分离了超过200种不同的有毒物质。
有毒物种多以鲜艳的颜色去警告捕猎者。这些颜色多为红色或黄色配以黑色,例如火蝾螈 就是明显的例子。一旦猎食者曾尝过一口这些物种,它们就会牢牢记著这些颜色的物种并不可口。一些物种的警告色 长在腹部上,如铃蟾属 的物种。因此它们在遇到攻击时反而会将腹部朝上,并分泌毒液以赶退敌人。并有一些物种本身没有毒性,如红背异箭毒蛙 ,就会模拟 在其地域中有毒的物种的肤色以吓退猎食者。[ 17]
不少两生动物都是夜行性 并于日间隐藏起来,以避开日间捕食的物种。其他两栖动物则善用不同的伪装 避免被发现。这些物种多有斑驳的棕色、灰色或橄榄色等以混和于背景中。一些蝾螈在面对猎食者会有独特的反捕行为 。一项以北短尾鼩鼱 (Blarina brevicauda )及不同的蝾螈所作的测试中,发现不少蝾螈会在面对猎食者时会不断翻腾身体,并会高举或拍打尾巴,使猎食者在猎食时无可避免地接触到它们皮肤上制毒的腺体。[ 18] 另一为人所知的防卫机制为自割 尾巴以便逃脱。有研究指尾巴有独特的结构以便它们在危难时被移离身体。一般而言被自割的尾巴都能够再生,但所需的能量不菲。[ 19]
一些青蛙及蟾蜍则透过吸入大量空气令身体膨胀,使它们的外观变得巨大及凶猛起来,一些锄足蟾 甚至会发出叫声并主动跳向攻击者。[ 20] 大鲵 、角花蟾亚科 (Ceratophryinae)物种及箱头蛙属 (Pyxicephalus )的物种都有尖锐的牙齿,并能在防制性的咬击中令对手流血受伤。分布于美国 的黑腹脊口螈 (Desmognathus quadramaculatus )就能够对攻击它们的束带蛇造成它们身体两至三倍大小的伤口,并且常能在挣扎中离开险境。[ 21]
火蝾螈 (
Salamandra salamandra )鲜艳的肤色能向猎食者传达出显眼的警告讯息,并且它们的皮肤能制造剧毒
蝾螈碱 来保护自己。
金色箭毒蛙 (
Phyllobates terribilis )可能是毒性最强的两栖动物,皮肤上布满了高浓度剧毒
蛙毒素 。
[ 22]
本纲包括以下目 :
目的地位未定 的科:
Acanthostegidae
Acherontiscidae
Adelogyrinidae
Allophyrnidae
Almasauridae
两栖螈科 Amphibamidae
真齿蛙科 Amphignathodontidae
Anthracosauridae
先驱螈科 Archegosauridae
Archeriidae
Asterophrydidae
Baphetidae
Batrachiderpetontidae
Batrachophrynidae
Benthosuchidae
Angusaurus Getmanov, 1989
Gondwanosaurus Lydekker, 1885
Kwatisuchus
Kwatisuchus rosai Pinheiro, Eltink, Paes-Neto, Machado, Simões & Pierce, 2024[ 23]
Odenwaldia Morales & Kamphausen, 1984
Pachygonia Huxley, 1865
Qantas Novikov, 2012
Syrtosuchus Novikov, 2016
Thoosuchus Efremov, 1940
Volgosuchus Efremov, 1940
Vyborosaurus Novikov, 1990
Brachyopidae
Brachystelechidae
Branchiosauridae
Bystrowianidae
Caerorhachidae
Capitosauridae
Capitosauroides Haubold, 1971
Capitosaurus Münster, 1836
Capitosaurus robustus (Meyer & Plieninger, 1844)
Cyclotosaurus Fraas, 1889
Cyclotosaurus buechneri Witzmann, Sachs & Nyhuis, 2016
Cyclotosaurus ebrachensis Kuhn, 1932
Cyclotosaurus hemprichi (Kuhn, 1942)
Cyclotosaurus intermedius Sulej & Majer, 2005
Cyclotosaurus naraserluki Marzola, Mateus, Shubin & Clemmensen, 2017[ 24]
Cyclotosaurus papilio Wepfer, 1913
Cyclotosaurus posthumus Fraas, 1913
Paracyclotosaurus Watson, 1958
Parotosaurus Jaekel, 1922
Ceratophrynidae
Chigutisauridae
Chroniosuchidae
Cochleosauridae
Cocytinidae
Colosteidae
Colostethidae
Crassigyrinidae
Cricotidae
Cyclotosauridae
Cystignathidae
Dactylethridae
Deltacephalidae
Dendrerpetontidae
Dendrophryniscidae
Derwentiidae
Diadectidae
Diplocaulidae
Discosauriscidae
Dissorophidae
Dvinosauridae
Dwinasauridae
Dyscophidae
Edopidae
Engystomidae
Enosuchidae
Eobrachyopidae
Eogyrinidae
Eoherpetontidae
Epicria
Eryopidae
Eryosuchidae
Eugyrinidae
Gephyrostegidae
Gymnarthridae
Hapsidopareiidae
Hapsidopareiontidae
Hemisidae
Heylerosauridae
Hylonomidae
Hyloplesiontidae
Ichthyostegidae
Indobrachyopidae
Intasuchidae
Keraterpetontidae
Konzhukoviidae
Kotlassiidae
Kourerpetidae
Laidleriidae
Lapillopsidae
Latiscopidae
Leptorophidae
Lethiscidae
Limnoscelididae
Liopelmidae
Lydekkerinidae
Lyrocephaliscidae
Lysipterygiidae
Mastodonsauridae
Melosauridae
Metoposauridae
Microbrachidae
Micromelerpetontidae
Micropholidae
Molgophidae
Nycteroleteridae
Odonterpetontidae
Ophiderpetontidae
Ostodolepidae
Otocratiidae
Pantylidae
Paracyclotosauridae
Parioxyidae
Parotosuchidae
Peltobatrachidae
Phlegethontiidae
Pholidogasteridae
Phryniscidae
斜横螈科 Plagiosauridae
Platystegidae
Proterogyrinidae
Protobatrachidae
Protritonidae
Pseudophlegethontiidae
Ptyoniidae
Rhinesuchidae
Rhynchonkidae
Rhytidosteidae
Sauropleuridae
Scincosauridae
Sclerocephalidae
Sclerothoracidae
Seymouriidae
Solenodonsauridae
Thoosuchidae
Tokosauridae
Trematopidae
Trematopsidae
Trematosauridae
Trihecatontidae
Trimerorhachidae
Tseajaiidae
Tuditanidae
Tulerpetontidae
Tupilakosauridae
Uranocentrodontidae
Urocordylidae
Urodela
Waggoneriidae
Wetlugasauridae
Whatcheeriidae
Yarengiidae
Zatrachydidae
目和科的地位未定 的属:
Abiadisaurus Warren, Yates, Damiani, Goodwin, Wood & Schaff, 1998
Acanthostoma Credner, 1883
Actibates Jardine, 1853
Acutipes Heyler & Lessertisseur, 1963
Adenoderma Fritsch, 1877
Agostopus Gilmore, 1926
Allopus Marsh, 1894
Altenglanerpeton Glienke, 2012
Amblyodon Dawson, 1882
Amblyopoditta Strand, 1935
Amblyopus Gilmore, 1927
Ammobatrachus Gilmore, 1928
Amphibiopodiscus Ellenberger, 1970
Amphibiopus Ellenberger, 1970
Amphicoelosaurus Barkas, 1873
Amphisauroides Haubold, 1970
Amphisauropus Haubold, 1970
近蜥龙属 Amphisaurus Barkas, 1870
Ancudia Philippi, 1902
Ancylopus Carman, 1928
Anisopus Owen, 1842
Anomoeichnus Carman, 1928
Antarctosuchus Sidor, Steyer & Hammer, 2014
Anthichnium Nopcsa, 1923
Anthracobamus Werneburg, 2019
Anthracopus Lorenz, 1879
Anthrakerpeton Owen, 1865
Aquiloniferus Bjerring, 1999
Arachana Piñeiro, Ramos & Marsicano, 2012
Archaeoovulus Capasso, Pallizzi, Milia & D'Anastasio, 2013
Arethusa Bonaparte, 1838
Arethusa Duméril & Bibron, 1841
Arizonerpeton Thayer, 1985
Arotus Cope, 1877
Asaphestera Steen, 1934
Asperipes Matthew, 1903
Atopotera Steen, 1934
Austropelor Longman, 1941
Axolotes Owen, 1844
Barillopus Matthew, 1903
Baropezia Matthew, 1903
Baropus Marsh, 1894
Barypodus Gilmore, 1926
Bathysiredon Taylor, 1940
Batrachichnus Woodworth, 1900
Batrachocephalus Fric, 1876
Batrachopodiscus Ellenberger, 1972
Batrachosaurus Fitzinger, 1843
Batrachosaurus Owen, 1876
Batrichnis Harkness, 1851
Benthosaurus Efremov, 1929
Benthosuchus Efremov, 1936
Bermanerpeton Werneburg, Schneider & Lucas, 2021
Biarmica Ivachnenko, 1987
Bissektia Nessov, 1981
铃蟾属 Bombina Tian & Hu, 1985
Borborophagus Branson & Mehl, 1929
Brachystelechus Carroll & Gaskill, 1978
Bradyarges Gistl, 1868
蟾蜍属 Bufo Rösel von Rosenhof, 1758
Calamita Merrem, 1820
Calamite Schneider, 1799
Calmasuchus Fortuny, Josep, Angel Galobart & Carles De Santisteban, 2011
Calochelys Fritsch, 1879
Capetus Steen, 1938
Capulomala Warren, Damiani & Sengupta, 2009
Ceratophryne Günther, 1858
Chaparana Fei, Ye & Huang, 1990
Chelidosaurus Fric, 1878
Chigutisaurus Rusconi, 1948
Chinlestegophis Pardo et al., 2017
Chionopelas Tschudi, 1846
Collettosaurus Cox, 1874
Cordyloides Fritsch, 1904
环尾蜥属 Cordylus Wagler, 1828
Corvipes Hitchcock, 1858
Cosmus d'Orbigny
Cratopipa Carvalho et al., 2019
Crenipes Heyler & Lessertisseur, 1963
Crucipes Butts, 1891
Cursipes Matthew, 1903
Datheosaurus Schroeder, 1905
Delphinosaurus Eichwald, 1853
Dendryazousa Steen, 1934
Desmodactylus Duméril & Bibron, 1854
Devipes Heyler & Lessertisseur, 1963
Diadetognathus Miall, 1874
Dictyocephalus Leidy, 1857
Diplopelturus Depéret, 1897
Diplospondylus Lydekker, 1889
Discodactylus Wagler, 1833
盘椎龙属 Discosaurus Credner, 1883
Diversipes Heyler & Lessertisseur, 1963
Doryphorus Brocchi, 1881
Doryphorus Mayer, 1835
Dromillopus Lambe, 1904
Dromopus Marsh, 1894
Dryomelictes Cope, 1865
Edingerella Schoch & Milner, 2000
Eldeceeon Smiths, 1994
Electrorana Xing et al., 2018
Elophila Duméril & Bibron, 1841
Eobatrachus Moodie, 1902
Eosauravus Williston, 1910
Eosaurus Marsh, 1862
Eoserpeton Moodie, 1909
Epicordylus Cope, 1878
Epipolysemia Brame, 1973
Episcopopus Ellenberger, 1970
Erierpeton Moodie, 1913
Erpetobrachium Moodie, 1913
Erpetosaurus Cope, 1874
Erpetosuchus Moodie, 1911
Eryopides Douthitt, 1917
Eryopsoides Douthitt, 1917
Eryosuchus Ochev, 1966
Eubates Steindachner, 1864
Euchirosaurus Gaudry, 1879
Eupalamopus Hay, 1902
Eupleurodus Gürich, 1884
Eurosaurus Kutorga, 1838
Eurycervix von Huene, 1902
Euryops Cope, 1884
Eurythorax Cope, 1871
Exobranchia Gray, 1850
Foliipes Heyler & Lessertisseur, 1963
Fritschia Dawson, 1882
Genibatrachus Gao & Chen, 2017
Gilmorella Strand, 1935
Glanochthon Schoch & Witzmann, 2009
Glossiphus Green, 1832
Glyptognathus Lydekker, 1882
Gnorhimosuchus Efremov, 1951
Goniocara Hay, 1929
Goniocephalus Broili, 1913
Gracilichnium Haubold, 1970
Grippiella Herre, 1949
Gryphius Gistl, 1848
Hadromophryne Hewitt, 1913
Halobatrachus Hammer, 1987
Heliarchon Meyer, 1860
Hemibatrachus Fitzinger, 1843
Hemichthys Fritsch, 1895
Hemiprichisaurus Kuhn, 1939
Hemprichisaurus Kuhn, 1939
Hensonbatrachus Gardner & Brinkman, 2015
Hercynosaurus Jaekel, 1914
Herpetichnus Jardine, 1850
Hesperopherpeton Peabody, 1958
Heylerosaurus Shishkin, 1980
Hiobates Steindachner, 1864
Huskerpeton Huttenlocker, Pardo, Small & Anderson, 2013
Hybridus Peracca, 1886
Hydrospelaeus Leuckart, 1821
Hylaemorphus Fitzinger, 1857
Hyliola Mocquard, 1899
Hyloidichnus Gilmore, 1927
Hylophryne Steindachner, 1864
Hylopus Dawson, 1895
海纳螈属 Hynerpeton Daeschler, Shubin, Thomson & Amaral, 1994
Hyperodon Lichtenstein & Martens, 1856
Hyphasma Cope, 1875
Iberospondylus Laurin & Soler-Gijón, 2001
Icanosaurus Rusconi, 1950
Ichnium Pabst, 1896
Ichthyerpeton Etheridge, 1866
Iliobates Steindachner, 1867
Joermungandr Mann, Calthorpe & Maddin, 2021
Jugosuchus Riabinin, 1962
Kalamoiketor Branson & Mehl, 1929
Kirktonecta Clack, 2011
Korkonterpeton Werneburg et al., 2020
Koskinonodon Branson & Mehl, 1929
Kryostega Sidor, Damiani & Hammer, 2008
Kupferzellia Schoch, 1997
Kuruleufenia Gómez, 2016
Labyrinthodon Owen, 1841
Lagunculapes Hitchcock, 1858
Laosuchus Arbez, Sidor & Steyer, 2018
Lasalia Vaughn, 1965
Lehahichnus Ellenberger, 1970
Leptognathosaurus Barkas, 1873
Limnopus Marsh, 1894
滑螈属 Lissotriton Gistl, 1868
Lithobatrachus Parker, 1929
Lonchorhynchus Wiman, 1910
Lusor Steen, 1938
Lutetiobatrachus Wuitke, 1988
Lysorocephalus Huene & Bock, 1954
Macromerium Lydekker, 1890
Macrosaurus Barkas, 1873
Macrothaelacion Wagler, 1833
Marpurgichnium Schindewolf, 1928
Mastocephalus van Hoepen, 1934
Matthewichnus Haubold, 1970
Megalerpeton Young, 1870
Megapezia Matthew, 1903
Memonomenos Steen, 1938
Mentosaurus Roepke, 1930
Merothaelacium Wagler, 1833
Mesichnium Gilmore, 1926
Meyerosuchus Ochev, 1966
Micrarthroleptis Deckert, 1938
Micrerpeton Moodie, 1909
Micrichnium Abel, 1926
Micropelobates Wettstein-Westersheimb, 1955
Milneria Hunt, Lucas & Berman, 1996
Moenkopisaurus Shishkin, 1960
Mycetoglossus Bonaparte, 1839
Mycetoides Duméril & Bibron, 1854
Mynbulakia Nessov, 1981
Mytaras Steen, 1931
Nanipes Heyler & Lessertisseur, 1963
Nanobamus Schoch & Milner, 2014
Nanopus Marsh, 1894
Nanospondylus Olson, 1965
Nectura Rafinesque, 1820
Notalacerta Butts, 1891
Notamphibia Butts, 1891
Notobatrachus Reig, 1956
Novascoticus Carroll, 1966
Octopodichnus Gilmore, 1927
Odontosaurus Meyer, 1835
Oestocephalus Cope, 1868
Onyctopus Martin, 1922
Ophiderpeton Fristch, 1879
Opisthocoelellus Kuhn, 1941
Ornithichnites King, 1845
蜥鸟盗龙属 Ornithoides Matthew, 1903
Orthopleurosaurus Lydekker, 1890
Orthosauriscus Kuhn, 1933
Orthosaurus Barkas, 1871
Otilopha Gray, 1831
Otuminisaurus Rusconi, 1948
Palaeophrynos Tschudi, 1838
Palaeopus Gilmore, 1926
Palaeosalamandra Herre, 1949
Palaeosalamandrina Herre, 1949
Palaeosaurus Fitzinger, 1843
Palaeosiren Geinitz, 1864
Palaeostricha van Frank, 1955
Palaeotriton Fitzinger, 1843
Palatinerpeton Boy, 1996
Paleohelcura Gilmore, 1926
Paleotriton Bronn, 1838
Palodromeus Schoch, Henrici & Hook, 2020
Parabaropus Gilmore, 1927
Paramicrobrachis Kuhn, 1960
Pariostegus Cope, 1868
Parotosuchus Ochev & Shishkin, 1968
Parvipes Willard & Cleaves, 1930
Pelion Cope, 1869
Pelonectes Lataste, 1879
Pelosaurus Credner, 1882
Perryella Carlson, 1987
Petrobates Credner, 1890
Petrophryne Owen, 1876
Phaenerobranchus Fitzinger, 1826
Phrynoderma Boulenger, 1893
Phrynophrys Bonaparte, 1839
Phylhydrus Swainson, 1839
Pithecopsis Duméril & Bibron, 1840
Platosphus L'Isle, 1877
扁头蛇属 Platyceps Stephens, 1887
Platyops Williston, 1918
Platyrhincus Duméril & Bibron, 1841
Platyrhynchus Leuckart, 1816
Platytherium Barkas, 1873
Pleuronoura Gaudry, 1879
Pleuroptyx Cope, 1875
Podonectes Steindachner, 1864
Porierpeton Fritsch, 1885
Potamochoston Steen, 1938
Proamphibia Karpinskii, 1930
Probatrachus Peters, 1877
Promelanerpeton Kuhn, 1961
Propelodytes Weitzel, 1938
Protocordylus Hyrtl, 1865
Protopelobates Bieber, 1880
Protophrynus Pomel, 1853
Protriton Boy, 1972
Proxilodon Huttenlocker, Pardo, Small & Anderson, 2013
Pseudarthroleptis Deckert, 1938
Pseudobradypus Matthew, 1903
Pseudopipa Ritgen, 1828
Ptychosphenodon Seeley, 1907
Puertollanopus Soler-Gijon & Moratalla, 2001
Ranavus Portis, 1885
Ranetta Geoffroy, 1767
Raniceps Wyman, 1858
Raphanodon Ivachnenko, 1987
Rewanobatrachus Schoch & Milner, 2000
Rhachitomus Cope, 1878
Rhaphidochir Wagler, 1833
Rhombopholis Fritsch, 1879
Rileymillerus Bolt & Chatterjee, 2000
Rubeta Fatio, 1872
Ruecklinichnium Kuhn, 1958
Saharastega Sidor, O'Keefe, Damiani, Steyer, Smith, Larsson, Sereno, Ide & Maga, 2005
Saurichnium Gürich, 1926
Sauropus Hitchcock, 1845
Sauropus Lea, 1849
Schmidtopus Haubold, 1970
Scotobius Gistl, 1848
Seelya Fritsch, 1883
Serripes Heyler & Lessertisseur, 1963
Silvanerpeton Clack, 1994
Sparagmites Fritsch, 1885
Spathicephalus D.M.S.Watson, 1929
Sphagepodium Steindachner, 1864
Sphenosaurus Meyer, 1847
Steenisaurus Kuhn, 1938
Stenichnus Gilmore, 1927
Stephanopus Gand, 1975
Stereorachis Gaudry, 1883
Stremmeia Nopcsa, 1931
Streptodontosaurus Barkas, 1873
Strictipes Heyler & Lessertisseur, 1963
Strombus Gray, 1830
Syphonodon Seeley, 1908
Tarsodactylus Hitchcock, 1858
Temnocorpichnus Lucas, Fillmore & Simpson, 2010
Termonerpeton Clack, Smithson & Ruta, 2022
Tetrapodium Gürich, 1926
Thaumastosaurus De Stefano, 1904
Thenaropus King, 1844
Thinopus Marsh, 1896
Thyrsidium Cope, 1874
Timanosaurus Gubin, 1993
Timonya Cisneros, Marsicano, Angielczyk, Smith, Richter, Fröbisch, Kammerer & Sadleir, 2015
Tischlieriella Herre, 1949
Tomeia Eltink et al., 2017
Torridorefugium Hembree, Hasiotis & Martin, 2005
Trematopsis Olson, 1956
Triaenopus Hitchcock, 1848
Triavestigia Gilmore, 1927
Tridactylosaurus Barkas, 1873
Tridentichnus Gilmore, 1927
Trypanognathus Schoch & Voigt, 2019
Tyrrellbatrachus Gardner, 2015
Ulanurus Gubin, 1991
Urumqia Zhang, Li & Wan, 1984
Utaherpeton Carroll, Bybee & Tidwell, 1991
Varibatrachus Parmley et al., 2015
Vladlenosaurus Morkovin & Novikov, 2000
Voigtiella Herre, 1949
Volgaosuchus Efremov, 1940
Warrenisuchus Maganuco, Steyer, Pasini, Boulay, Lorrain, Bénéteau & Auditore, 2009
Watsonisuchus Ochev, 1966
Wealdenbatrachus Fey, 1988
Westlothiana Smithson & Rolfe, 1990
^ 引用错误:没有为名为colbert1969
的参考文献提供内容
Carroll, RL. Vertebrate Paleontology and Evolution. WH Freeman & Co. 1988.
Moodie, G. E. E. Observations on the life history of the caecilian Typhlonectes compressicaudus (Dumeril and Bibron) in the Amazon basin. Canadian Journal of Zoology . 1978, 56 (4): 1005–1008. doi:10.1139/z78-141 .
Brodie, Edmund D. Jr. Investigations on the skin toxin of the adult rough-skinned newt, Taricha granulosa . Copeia . 1968, 1968 (2): 307–313. JSTOR 1441757 . doi:10.2307/1441757 .
Hanifin, Charles T.; Yotsu-Yamashita, Mari; Yasumoto, Takeshi; Brodie, Edmund D.; Brodie, Edmund D. Jr. Toxicity of dangerous prey: variation of tetrodotoxin levels within and among populations of the newt Taricha granulosa . Journal of Chemical Ecology . 1999, 25 (9): 2161–2175. doi:10.1023/A:1021049125805 .
Geffeney, Shana L.; Fujimoto, Esther; Brodie, Edmund D.; Brodie, Edmund D. Jr.; Ruben, Peter C. Evolutionary diversification of TTX-resistant sodium channels in a predator–prey interaction. Nature . 2005, 434 (7034): 759–763. PMID 15815629 . doi:10.1038/nature03444 .
Brodie, Edmund D. Jr.; Nowak, Robert T.; Harvey, William R. Antipredator secretions and behavior of selected salamanders against shrews. Copeia . 1979, 1979 (2): 270–274. JSTOR 1443413 . doi:10.2307/1443413 .
Beneski, John T. Jr. Adaptive significance of tail autotomy in the Salamander, Ensatina . Journal of Herpetology. 1989, 23 (3): 322–324. JSTOR 156446 . doi:10.2307/1564465 .
Arnold, Nicholas; Ovenden, Denys. Reptiles and Amphibians of Britain and Europe . Harper Collins Publishers. 2002: 13–18. ISBN 978-0-00-219318-4 .
Brodie, E. D. Jr. Biting and vocalisation as antipredator mechanisms in terrestrial salamanders. Copeia . 1978, 1978 (1): 127–129. JSTOR 1443832 . doi:10.2307/1443832 .
Felipe L. Pinheiro, Estevan Eltink, Voltaire D. Paes-Neto, Arielli F. Machado, Tiago R. Simões and Stephanie E. Pierce. 2024. Interrelationships Among early Triassic Faunas of Western Gondwana and Laurasia as illuminated by A New South American benthosuchid temnospondyl. The Anatomical Record. DOI: 10.1002/ar.25384
Marzola Marco MARCO MARZOLA , Mateus Octávio OCTÁVIO MATEUS , Shubin Neil H. NEIL H. SHUBIN & Clemmensen Lars B. LARS B. CLEMMENSEN (2017) Cyclotosaurus naraserluki, sp. nov., a new Late Triassic cyclotosaurid (Amphibia, Temnospondyli) from the Fleming Fjord Formation of the Jameson Land Basin (East Greenland), Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 37:2, DOI: 10.1080/02724634.2017.1303501
Frost, Darrel R.; Grant, Taran; Faivovich, Julián; Bain, Raoul H.; Haas, Alexander; Haddad, Célio F.B.; De Sá, Rafael O.; Channing, Alan; Wilkinson, Mark; Donnellan, Stephen C.; Raxworthy, Christopher J.; Campbell, Jonathan A.; Blotto, Boris L.; Moler, Paul; Drewes, Robert C.; Nussbaum, Ronald A.; Lynch, John D.; Green, David M.; Wheeler, Ward C. The Amphibian Tree of Life . Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History . 2006, 297 : 1–291 [2021-01-22 ] . doi:10.1206/0003-0090(2006)297[0001:TATOL]2.0.CO;2 . hdl:2246/5781 . (原始内容存档 于2018-10-04).
Pounds, J. Alan; Bustamante, Martín R.; Coloma, Luis A.; Consuegra, Jamie A.; Fogden, Michael P. L.; Foster, Pru N.; La Marca, Enrique; Masters, Karen L.; Merino-Viteri, Andrés; Puschendorf, Robert; Ron, Santiago R.; Sánchez-Azofeifa, G. Arturo; Still, Christopher J.; Young, Bruce E. Widespread amphibian extinctions from epidemic disease driven by global warming . Nature . 2006, 439 (7073): 161–167 [2021-01-22 ] . Bibcode:2006Natur.439..161A . PMID 16407945 . doi:10.1038/nature04246 . (原始内容存档 于2020-08-08).