1967年,社会学家罗伯特·贝拉撰写《美国的公民宗教》(Civil Religion in America)一文,这一术语的现今定义就此明确。贝拉称美国人接受了一种共有的公民宗教,有着特有的信念、价值、仪式和节日,而独立于其信奉的宗教[1]。贝拉的文章后来成为许多宗教社会学会议的讨论焦点,亦产生许多关于这一主题的论著。到1976年的美国建国二百周年之际,关于“美国公民宗教”的讨论颇为火热,达至巅峰[2][1][3][4][5]。
贝拉认为,美国人将美国宪法、美国独立宣言和美国权利法案视为其“公民信仰”或“政治信仰”的基石。政治社会学家安东尼·斯奎尔斯(Anthony Squiers)称,这三份文档近乎美国公民宗教的教条,是美国“神圣政治”的权威象征。斯奎尔斯将“神圣政治”(politics of the sacred)定义为一种辨认对方是否符合公民宗教的神圣性的企图,是一场根据事物“神圣性”而辨别它能与不能、应该还是不应该得到社群的接纳容忍的争斗[6]:20。
关于美国公民宗教的研究大多遵循贝拉和涂尔干的阐释[13]。此外,主要的研究依据还包括,约翰·杜威在1934年关于“共同信仰”(common faith)的论述;社会学家罗宾·墨菲·威廉斯(英语:Robin Murphy Williams)所著之《美国社会:社会学解释》(American Society: A Sociological Interpretation,1951)中关于“共同宗教”的描述;劳埃德·沃纳(英语:Lloyd Warner)所著之《扬基城》(Yankee City, 1953 [1974])中关于亡兵纪念日纪念活动的分析;历史学家马丁·马蒂(英语:Martin Marty)阐述的“一般的宗教”(religion in general,1959);理论家威尔·赫伯格(英语:Will Herberg)所述之美国生活方式(1960, 1974);西德尼·米德(英语:Sidney Mead)所述之“共和国的宗教”(religion of the Republic);以及英国作家却斯特顿所言“美国是唯一基于信条建立的国家”,他还发明了美国是“有着教会的灵魂的国家”(a nation with a soul of a church)的说法[4][5]。
查尔斯·卡尔霍恩(英语:Charles W. Calhoun)称在19世纪80年代,本杰明·哈里森讲话中的修辞风格带有美国公民宗教的色彩,可谓熟稔运用公民信仰思想的总统人选。哈里森在社会和经济事务中运用基督教观念,为社会福音、进步主义运动铺平道路,也让日后的社会开始认可政府出面解决社会问题的行为[24]。
格蕾丝·高(Grace Y. Kao)和杰罗姆·科普尔斯基(Jerome E. Copulsky)称,公民宗教概念流行,引起公众对于宪法中效忠宣誓的讨论。效忠宣誓的作用体现四个层面:保护主义、多元主义、教士层面和先知层面。争论并不是在信上帝与不信上帝者之间展开,而是关乎公民宗教的地位展开[34]。
马修·克劳德(Matthew W. Cloud)回顾了1787年以来的各种美国政治誓言,追寻当时民族团结和宗教信念二者的对立局面。他回顾美国最高法院有关效忠宣誓的主要判例,如矛盾的迈纳斯维尔小学诉戈比蒂斯案(英语:Minersville School District v. Gobitis)(1940)和西弗吉尼亚州诉巴内特案(英语:West Virginia v. Barnette)(1943)两案。前者判定公立学校可以强迫学生向美国国旗敬礼并背诵效忠誓词,而后者则推翻前案判决,裁定根据第一修正案,学生可免于强制性的宣誓效忠。这一案件主要和耶和华见证人信徒有关,这一教派禁止教徒崇拜政治象征物。1954年,效忠誓词中加入了“上帝之下的国度”(one Nation under God)的字眼,克劳德认为这是出于反共立场[35]。
埃里克·乌德拉姆(Eric Woodrum)和阿诺德·贝尔(Arnold Bell)称,非裔美国人的公民宗教思想不如白人深重,公民宗教的前导因素对于黑人和白人有着不同影响。例如,传统宗教对于白人来说是正面的,而对于黑人来说则是负面影响。乌德拉姆和贝尔认为,这种差别是非裔美国人的宗教民族起源论及分裂主义思想的产物[39]。弗雷德里克·道格拉斯在其1852年“对于奴隶来说美国独立日是什么”(What to the Slave Is the Fourth of July?)的演讲中,公民宗教对于黑人群体来说较为复杂,“日光带给你生命和疗愈,却带给我斑纹和死亡。这独立日属于你们,不属于我。你们可以庆祝,我则必须哀悼[40][41]。”
制宪者对于宪法的看法也有所不同。华盛顿在告别演说中恳请后世“维护宪法神圣”;他在给詹姆斯·麦迪逊的回信中称,即使是最明智而自由的政府,在社会竞逐对抗之下也需要促成公民对宪法的崇敬,以维持必需的稳定公民认知。另一边,反对“宪法崇拜”的传统也颇为深厚。托马斯·杰斐逊承认宪法崇拜的存在,“有些人认为宪法无比神圣,将之看作不可触碰的约柜”,但也坚信宪法是不完美的,应坚信“制度必须进步”(institutions must advance also)[48]。
托马斯·格雷(Thomas Grey)在其《作为经文的宪法》(The Constitution as scripture)一文中强调美国信条即是美国民族的唯一纽带和信仰依托,他将美国同那些需要依靠上天指定权威君主,以天命统治而凝聚在一起的传统社会作对比,按照宪法的第六条第三款,即“应宣誓或作代誓宣言拥护本宪法;决不得以宗教信仰作为担任合众国属下任何官职或公职的必要资格”,两种社会形成鲜明对比。这不仅是对于过往英国政教不分传统的突破,同样是对于当时美国各州的情况来说的理念上的大突破[54]。
Squiers, Anthony. The Politics of the Sacred in America: The Role of Civil Religion in Political Practice. New York: Springer International Publishing. 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-68870-1. OCLC 1105449948.
Jürgen Heideking, "The federal processions of 1788 and the origins of American civil religion." Soundings(英语:Soundings (journal)) (1994): 367–87. in JSTOR (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
Len Travers, "Hurrah for the Fourth: Patriotism, Politics, and Independence Day in Federalist Boston, 1783–1818." Essex Institute(英语:Essex Institute) Historical Collections 125: 129–61.
James David Fairbanks, "The Priestly Functions of the Presidency: A Discussion of the Literature on Civil Religion and Its Implications for the Study of Presidential Leadership," Presidential Studies Quarterly (1981) 11:214–32.
Robert D. Linder, "Universal pastor: President Bill Clinton's civil religion," Journal of Church and State(英语:Journal of Church and State), Autumn 1996, 38#4 pp 733–49
Charles W. Calhoun, "Civil religion and the gilded age presidency: The case of Benjamin Harrison," Presidential Studies Quarterly, Fall 1993, 23#4 pp. 651–67
Manfred Brocker, "Civil Religion, Fundamentalism, and the Politics and Policies of George W. Bush," Journal of Political Science, Jan 2004, Vol. 32, pp. 95–124
Stefanie. Hammer, "The role of narrative in political campaigning: An analysis of speeches by Barack Obama," National Identities(英语:National Identities), Sept 2010, 12#3, pp. 269–90
Kelly Denton-Borhaug, "Sharing Peace: Mennonites and Catholics in Conversation", Gerald W. Schlabach and Margaret Pfeil (eds.), American Catholic Studies 125#2 (2014): 82–83.
Grace Y. Kao and Jerome E. Copulsky, "The Pledge of Allegiance and the Meanings and Limits of Civil Religion," Journal of the American Academy of Religion, March 2007, 75#1, pp. 121–49 doi:10.1093/jaarel/lfl065
Matthew W. Cloud, "'One Nation, Under God': Tolerable Acknowledgement of Religion or Unconstitutional Cold War Propaganda Cloaked in American Civil Religion?" Journal of Church and State, Spring 2004, 46#2 pp. 311–40, online (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
Charles Reagan Wilson, "The Religion of the Lost Cause: Ritual and the Organization of the Southern Civil Religion, 1865–1920," Journal of Southern History, May 1980, 46#2 pp. 219–38
Jane Naomi Iwamura, "Critical Faith: Japanese Americans and the Birth of a New Civil Religion," American Quarterly(英语:American Quarterly), Sept 2007, 59#3, pp. 937–968, in Project MUSE (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
Luis D. León, "Cesar Chavez in American Religious Politics: Mapping the New Global Spiritual Line." American Quarterly(英语:American Quarterly), Sep 2007, 59#3 pp. 857–81, doi:10.1353/aq.2007.0060
Bellah, Robert Neelly. Civil Religion in America. Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Winter 1967, 96 (1): 1–21. (原始内容存档于2005-03-06). From the issue entitled Religion in America.
Bortolini, Matteo. The trap of intellectual success. Robert N. Bellah, the American civil religion debate, and the sociology of knowledge. Theory & Society(英语:Theory & Society). 2012, 41 (2): 187–210. S2CID 143469936. doi:10.1007/s11186-012-9166-8.
Jewett, Robert; John Shelton Lawrence. Captain America and the Crusade Against Evil: The Dilemma of Zealous Nationalism. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. 2004. ISBN 978-0-8028-2859-0. Page 328 specifically talks about American civil religion, referencing Jones's book, American Civil Religion.
Jones, Donald G.; Russell E. Richey. American Civil Religion. Edwin Mellen Press(英语:Edwin Mellen Press). November 1990 [1st pub. 1974 by Harper]. ISBN 978-0-7734-9997-3.
McCarthy, Rockne. "Civil Religion in Early America," Fides et Historia(英语:Fides et Historia), Summer 1975, 8#1 pp 20–40, covers 1800-1900
Pierard, Richard V. and Robert D. Linder, "The President and Civil Religion," in Encyclopedia of the American Presidency ed. by Leonard W. Levy and Louis Fisher, (1994), I: 203-06.
Polk, Andrew R. Faith in Freedom: Propaganda, Presidential Politics, and the Making of an American Religion. Cornell University Press. 2021. ISBN 978-1-5017-5922-2(英语).
Richey, Russell E., and Donald G. Jones, eds. American Civil Religion (1974), articles by scholars
Rouner, Leroy S. ed. Civil Religion and Political Theology (1986).
Sassi, Jonathan D. A Republic of Righteousness: The Public Christianity of the Post-Revolutionary New England Clergy (Oxford University Press, 2001). online[失效链接]
Swatos, William H. "Civil Religion," in Encyclopedia of Religion and Society (1998) onlineISBN0-7619-8956-0
SpearIt. Legal Punishment as Civil Ritual. Mississippi Law Journal. 2013, 82 (1). SSRN 2232897.
历史编纂学文献
Fenn, Richard K. "The Relevance of Bellah's 'Civil Religion' Thesis to a Theory of Secularization," Social Science History(英语:Social Science History), Fall 1977, 1#4 pp 502–517
Lindner, Robert D. "Civil Religion in Historical Perspective: The Reality that Underlies the Concept," Journal of Church and State(英语:Journal of Church and State), Summer 1975, 17#3 pp 399–421, focus on European theorists
McDermott, Gerald Robert. "Civil Religion in the American Revolutionary Period: An Historiographic Analysis," Christian Scholar's Review, April 1989, 18#4 pp 346–362
Mathisen, James A.; Bellah, Robert N. "Twenty Years after Bellah: Whatever Happened to American Civil Religion?," Sociological Analysis, April 1989, 50#2, pp 129–146 online (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆)
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