ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪꦃ
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ (Latin: Indonésia, Pegon: إنڎَونَيسييا), ꦉꦱ꧀ꦩꦶꦤꦺ ꦫꦺꦥꦸꦧ꧀ꦭꦶꦏ꧀ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ (ꦧꦱ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ: Republik Indonesia), ꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦱꦮꦶꦗꦶꦤꦶꦁ ꦤꦒꦫ ꦧꦼꦂꦣꦲꦸꦭꦠ꧀ ꦠꦿꦤ꧀ꦱ꧀ꦏꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦠꦶꦤꦺꦤ꧀ꦠꦭ꧀ ꦢꦸꦩꦸꦤꦸꦁ ꦩ꧀ꦭꦶꦒꦶ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦄꦱꦶꦪ ꦏꦶꦢꦸꦭ꧀-ꦮꦺꦠꦤ꧀ ꦏꦫꦺꦴ ꦱꦮꦠꦫ ꦠ꧀ꦭꦠꦃ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦎꦱꦺꦪꦤꦶꦪ. ꦢꦸꦩꦸꦤꦸꦁ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦲꦤ꧀ꦠꦫꦤꦺ ꦱꦩꦺꦴꦢꦿ ꦲꦶꦤ꧀ꦢꦶꦪ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦥꦱꦶꦥ꦳ꦶꦏ꧀, ꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦤꦒꦫ ꦏꦥꦸꦭꦺꦴꦮꦤ꧀ ꦒꦼꦣꦺ ꦣꦺꦮꦺ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦢꦸꦚ, ꦏꦤ꧀ꦛꦶ ꦥꦸꦚ꧀ꦗꦸꦭ꧀ ꦠꦼꦭꦸꦭꦱ꧀ ꦲꦺꦮꦸ ꦥꦸꦭꦺꦴ.[9][10] ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦤ꧀ꦢꦸꦮꦺ ꦏꦶꦫ-ꦏꦶꦫ ꦥꦺꦴꦥꦸꦭꦱꦶ ꦭꦶꦮꦠ꧀ 258 ꦪꦸꦠ ꦮꦺꦴꦁ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦤꦺꦴꦩꦼꦂ ꦥꦥꦠ꧀ ꦤꦒꦫ ꦥꦭꦶꦁ ꦲꦏꦺꦃ ꦥꦺꦴꦥꦸꦭꦱꦶꦤꦺ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦢꦸꦚ, ꦤꦒꦫ ꦄꦈꦱ꧀ꦠꦿꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦾ ꦥꦭꦶꦁ ꦲꦏꦺꦃ ꦥꦺꦴꦥꦸꦭꦱꦶꦤꦺ, ꦲꦸꦒ ꦤꦒꦫ ꦩꦪꦺꦴꦫꦶꦠꦱ꧀ ꦩꦸꦱ꧀ꦭꦶꦩ꧀ ꦥꦭꦶꦁ ꦲꦏꦺꦃ ꦥꦺꦴꦥꦸꦭꦱꦶꦤꦺ. ꦥꦸꦭꦺꦴ ꦥꦭꦶꦁ ꦥꦣꦼꦠ꧀ ꦱ ꦢꦸꦚ ꦗꦮ ꦔꦤ꧀ꦝꦸꦠ꧀ ꦥꦸꦚ꧀ꦗꦸꦭ꧀ ꦱꦼꦠꦼꦔꦃ ꦱꦏ ꦥꦺꦴꦥꦸꦭꦱꦶ.
ꦗꦮ |
ꦫꦺꦥꦸꦧ꧀ꦭꦶꦏ꧀ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ إندونيسيا ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ Republik Indonesia | |
---|---|
Motto: "ꦨꦶꦤ꧀ꦤꦺꦏ ꦠꦸꦁꦒꦭ꧀ ꦆꦏ" (ꦧꦱ ꦗꦮ ꦏꦸꦤ) "ꦱꦺꦗꦺ-ꦱꦺꦗꦺ ꦤꦔꦶꦁ ꦲꦗꦼꦒ꧀ ꦩꦤꦸꦁꦒꦭ꧀" ꦆꦣꦺꦪꦺꦴꦭꦺꦴꦒꦶ ꦤꦱꦶꦪꦺꦴꦤꦭ꧀: ꦥꦚ꧀ꦕꦱꦶꦭ[1][2] | |
Gunagita: 'ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦫꦪ "ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦲꦒꦸꦁ" | |
Dunungpenering ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ | |
Kuthagara lan Kutha paling gedhé | ꦗꦏꦂꦠ |
Jawatbasa |
|
Agama | ꦉꦱ꧀ꦩꦶ:[a] ꦆꦱ꧀ꦭꦩ꧀ ꦥꦿꦺꦴꦠꦺꦱ꧀ꦠꦤ꧀ ꦏꦠꦸꦭꦶꦏ꧀ ꦲꦶꦤ꧀ꦝꦸ ꦧꦸꦢ꧀ꦢ ꦏꦺꦴꦁꦲꦸꦕꦸ |
Papréntahan | ꦫꦺꦥꦸꦧ꧀ꦭꦶꦏ꧀ ꦏꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦱ꧀ꦠꦶꦠꦸꦱꦶꦪꦺꦴꦤꦭ꧀ ꦥꦿꦺꦱꦶꦣꦺꦤ꧀ꦱꦶꦪꦭ꧀ ꦩꦤꦸꦁꦒꦭ꧀ |
ꦥꦿꦧꦮ ꦱꦸꦧꦶꦪꦤ꧀ꦠ | |
ꦒꦶꦧꦿꦤ꧀ ꦫꦏꦧꦸꦩꦶꦁ ꦫꦏ | |
Paukumkaryan | ꦩꦗꦼꦭꦶꦱ꧀ ꦥꦼꦂꦩꦸꦱꦾꦮꦫꦠ꧀ꦠꦤ꧀ ꦫꦏ꧀ꦪꦠ꧀ |
• Ucagreha | ꦣꦺꦮꦤ꧀ ꦥꦐꦩꦮꦏꦶꦭ꧀ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦣꦲꦺꦫꦃ |
• Nicagreha | ꦣꦺꦮꦤ꧀ ꦥꦼꦂꦮꦏꦶꦭ꧀ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦫꦏ꧀ꦪꦠ꧀ |
ꦲꦢꦼꦒ꧀ | |
20 ꦩꦉꦠ꧀ 1602 | |
1 ꦗꦤꦸꦮꦫꦶ 1800 | |
• ꦏꦗꦺꦒꦤ꧀ ꦗꦼꦥꦁ | 9 ꦩꦉꦠ꧀ 1942 |
• ꦧꦪꦮꦫ ꦩꦂꦢꦶꦏ | 17 Agustus 1945 |
• ꦫꦺꦥꦸꦧ꧀ꦭꦶꦏ꧀ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦱꦫꦺꦏꦠ꧀ | 27 ꦣꦺꦱꦺꦩ꧀ꦧꦼꦂ 1949 |
• RIS ꦢꦶꦧꦸꦧꦂꦫꦏꦺ | 17 ꦄꦒꦸꦱ꧀ꦠꦸꦱ꧀ 1950 |
• ꦎꦂꦣꦼ ꦲꦚꦂ | 12 ꦩꦉꦠ꧀ 1967 |
• ꦫꦺꦥ꦳ꦺꦴꦂꦩꦱꦶ | 21 Mèi 1998 |
Pijembar | |
• ꦣꦫꦠ꧀ | [convert: invalid number] (ꦲꦁꦏ 15) |
• ꦧꦚꦸ (%) | 4,85 |
Population | |
• Pikira-kira 2015 | 255.461.700[4] |
• Cacahjiwa 2010 | 237.424.363[5] (ꦲꦁꦏ 4) |
• Ketebdunung | 12,466/km2 (32,286.8/sq mi) (ꦲꦁꦏ 84) |
GKK (ITK) | Pikira-kira 2016 |
• Gunggung | $3,010 triliun[5] (ꦲꦁꦏ 8) |
• Saben wong | $11.633[5] (ꦲꦁꦏ 102) |
GKK (angka) | Pikira-kira 2016 |
• Gunggung | $936,955 miliar[5] (ꦲꦁꦏ 16) |
• Saben wong | $3.620[5] (ꦲꦁꦏ 117) |
Gini (2010) | 35.6[6] tengah |
IPM (2018) | 0.707[7] dhuwur · ꦲꦁꦏ 110 |
Artacihna | ꦫꦸꦥꦶꦪꦃ (Rp) (IDR) |
Laladan wektu | UTC+7 ꦠꦼꦏꦤ꧀ +9 (ꦮꦂꦤ-ꦮꦂꦤ) |
• Mangsa ketiga (AKK) | UTC+7 ꦠꦼꦏꦤ꧀ +9 (ꦮꦂꦤ-ꦮꦂꦤ) |
Rupa titimangsa | DD/WW/TTTT |
Nyetir ing | ꦏꦶꦮ |
Kodhé bèl | +62 |
TLD internèt | .id |
Situs wèb indonesia.go.id | |
ꦮꦔꦸꦤ꧀ ꦥꦩꦫꦺꦤ꧀ꦠꦃꦲꦤ꧀ ꦫꦺꦥꦸꦧ꧀ꦭꦶꦏ꧀ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦏꦊꦧꦸ ꦭꦺꦒꦶꦱ꧀ꦭꦠꦸꦂ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦥꦿꦺꦱꦶꦣꦺꦤ꧀ ꦏꦥꦶꦭꦶꦃ. ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦢꦸꦮꦺ 34 ꦥꦿꦺꦴꦥ꦳ꦶꦤ꧀ꦱꦶ, ꦏꦁ ꦭꦶꦩ ꦢꦸꦮꦺ ꦱ꧀ꦠꦠꦸꦱ꧀ ꦄꦢ꧀ꦩꦶꦤꦶꦱ꧀ꦠꦿꦠꦶꦥ꦳꧀ ꦩꦶꦫꦸꦁꦒꦤ꧀. ꦏꦸꦛ ꦏꦿꦗꦤ꧀ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦥꦭꦶꦁ ꦲꦏꦺꦃ ꦏꦁ ꦤ꧀ꦢꦸꦤꦸꦁꦔꦶ ꦪꦏꦸꦮꦶ ꦗꦏꦂꦠ. ꦤꦒꦫ ꦢꦸꦮꦺ ꦠꦥꦼꦭ꧀ ꦮꦠꦼꦱ꧀ ꦏꦫꦺꦴ ꦥꦥꦸꦮ ꦤꦸꦒꦶꦤꦶ, ꦠꦶꦩꦺꦴꦂ ꦮꦺꦠꦤ꧀, ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦩꦭꦪ꧀ꦱꦾ ꦱꦶꦱꦶꦃ ꦮꦺꦠꦤ꧀. ꦤꦒꦫ ꦠꦁꦒꦤꦺ ꦏꦊꦧꦸ ꦱꦶꦔꦥꦸꦫ, ꦥ꦳ꦶꦭꦶꦥꦶꦤ, ꦄꦈꦱ꧀ꦠꦿꦭꦶꦪ, ꦥꦭꦮ꧀, ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦠ꧀ꦭꦠꦃ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦶꦪ ꦄꦤ꧀ꦝꦩꦤ꧀ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦤꦶꦏꦺꦴꦧꦂ. ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦱꦮꦶꦗꦶꦤꦶꦁ ꦲꦁꦒꦺꦴꦠ ꦥꦔꦢꦼꦒ꧀ ꦄꦱꦺꦪꦤ꧀ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦲꦁꦒꦺꦴꦠ ꦱꦏ ꦌꦏꦺꦴꦤꦺꦴꦩꦶ ꦲꦸꦠꦩ G-20. ꦌꦏꦺꦴꦤꦺꦴꦩꦶ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦥꦼꦫꦶꦁꦏꦠ꧀ 16 PDB ꦤꦺꦴꦩꦶꦤꦭ꧀ ꦢꦸꦚ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦒꦼꦣꦺ ꦣꦺꦮꦺ ꦲꦁꦭ 8 PDB ꦲꦶꦁ PPP.
ꦏꦥꦸꦭꦺꦴꦮꦤ꧀ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦮꦶꦱ꧀ ꦠ꧀ꦭꦠꦃ ꦮꦶꦒꦠꦶ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦥꦢꦒꦁꦔꦤ꧀ ꦮꦶꦮꦶꦠ꧀ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦥꦭꦶꦁ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦄꦧꦢ꧀ ꦏꦥꦶꦁ 7, ꦤꦭꦶꦏ ꦱꦿꦶꦮꦶꦗꦪ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦧꦚ꧀ꦗꦸꦂ ꦩꦼꦂꦏꦺꦴ ꦩꦗꦥꦲꦶꦠ꧀ ꦢꦒꦁ ꦏꦫꦺꦴ ꦕꦶꦤ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦶꦪ. ꦥꦔꦸꦮꦱ ꦭꦺꦴꦏꦭ꧀ ꦔ꧀ꦒꦸꦤꦏ꧀ꦏꦏꦺ ꦩꦺꦴꦣꦺꦭ꧀ ꦧꦸꦢꦪ, ꦲꦒꦩ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦥꦸꦭꦶꦠꦶꦏ꧀ ꦩꦚ꧀ꦕ ꦱꦏ ꦲꦮꦭ꧀ ꦄꦧꦢ꧀ ꦩꦱꦺꦲꦶ, ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦏꦫꦗꦤ꧀ ꦲꦶꦤ꧀ꦝꦸ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦧꦸꦢ꧀ꦢ ꦔꦽꦩ꧀ꦧꦏ. ꦱꦗꦫꦃ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦮꦶꦱ꧀ ꦢꦆꦥꦿꦧꦮꦲꦶ ꦢꦺꦤꦶꦁ ꦏꦏꦸꦮꦱ꧀ ꦩꦚ꧀ꦕ ꦏꦼꦥꦶꦚ꧀ꦕꦸꦠ꧀ ꦏꦫꦺꦴ ꦱꦸꦩ꧀ꦧꦼꦂ ꦢꦪ ꦲꦭꦩ꧀ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ. ꦥꦼꦢꦒꦁ ꦩꦸꦱ꧀ꦭꦶꦩ꧀ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦈꦭꦩ ꦱꦸꦥ꦳ꦶ ꦔ꧀ꦒꦮ ꦆꦱ꧀ꦭꦩ꧀ ꦏꦁ ꦱꦲꦶꦏꦶ ꦢꦺꦴꦩꦶꦤꦤ꧀,[11][12] ꦱꦮꦠꦫ ꦏꦏꦸꦮꦱꦤ꧀ ꦌꦫꦺꦴꦥ ꦔ꧀ꦒꦮ ꦏꦿꦶꦱ꧀ꦠꦼꦤ꧀ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦥꦼꦫꦁ ꦱꦶꦗꦶ ꦭꦶꦪꦤꦺ ꦏꦁꦒꦺꦴ ꦩꦺꦴꦤꦺꦴꦥꦺꦴꦭꦶ ꦢꦒꦁ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦏꦥꦸꦭꦺꦴꦮꦤ꧀ ꦩꦭꦸꦏꦸ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦗꦩꦤ꧀ ꦥꦼꦚ꧀ꦗꦗꦃꦲꦤ꧀. ꦱꦮꦶꦱꦺ ꦠꦼꦭꦸꦁ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦱꦼꦠꦼꦔꦃ ꦄꦧꦢ꧀ ꦏꦺꦴꦭꦺꦴꦤꦶꦪꦭ꧀ꦭꦶꦱ꧀ꦩꦼ ꦮꦭꦤ꧀ꦢ ꦮꦶꦮꦶꦠ꧀ ꦄꦩ꧀ꦧꦺꦴꦤ꧀ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦧꦠꦥ꦳ꦶꦪ, ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦥꦸꦁꦏꦱ꧀ꦱꦤ꧀ꦤꦶꦥꦸꦤ꧀ ꦏꦧꦺꦃ ꦏꦥꦸꦭꦺꦴꦮꦤ꧀ ꦏꦊꦧꦸ ꦠꦶꦩꦺꦴꦂ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦥꦥꦸꦮ ꦭꦸꦭꦺꦴꦤ꧀, ꦲꦶꦂ ꦏꦥꦶꦁ ꦢꦶꦱꦼꦭꦤꦶ ꦢꦺꦤꦶꦁ ꦏꦏꦸꦮꦱꦤ꧀ ꦥꦺꦴꦂꦠꦸꦒꦶꦱ꧀, ꦥꦿꦚ꧀ꦕꦶꦱ꧀ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦆꦁꦒꦿꦶꦱ꧀, ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦩꦂꦢꦶꦏ ꦱꦮꦶꦱꦺ ꦥꦼꦫꦁ ꦢꦸꦚ II. ꦱꦗꦫꦃ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦏꦁ ꦮꦶꦱ꧀ ꦮꦶꦮꦶꦠ꧀ ꦲꦺꦴꦫ ꦠꦼꦤꦁ, ꦏꦫꦺꦴ ꦠꦤ꧀ꦠꦁꦔꦤ꧀ ꦧꦼꦚ꧀ꦕꦤ ꦲꦭꦩ꧀, ꦫꦗ ꦥꦠꦶ ꦩꦱ꧀ꦱ, ꦏꦺꦴꦫꦸꦥ꧀ꦱꦶ, ꦱꦼꦥꦫꦠꦶꦱ꧀ꦩꦼ, ꦥꦿꦺꦴꦱꦺꦱ꧀ ꦢꦺꦩꦺꦴꦏꦿꦠ꧀ꦠꦶꦱꦱꦶ, ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦥꦺꦫꦶꦪꦺꦴꦢꦼ ꦱꦏ ꦲꦺꦴꦮꦃ-ꦲꦺꦴꦮꦃꦲꦤ꧀ ꦌꦏꦺꦴꦤꦺꦴꦩꦶ ꦏꦤ꧀ꦛꦶ ꦫꦶꦏꦠ꧀.
ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦢꦸꦩꦢꦶ ꦱꦏ ꦲꦠꦸꦱ꧀ꦱꦤ꧀ ꦒꦺꦴꦭꦺꦴꦁꦔꦤ꧀ ꦌꦠ꧀ꦤꦶꦱ꧀ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦭꦶꦔꦸꦮꦶꦱ꧀ꦠꦶꦏ꧀ ꦲꦱ꧀ꦭꦶ. ꦒꦺꦴꦭꦺꦴꦁꦔꦤ꧀ ꦌꦠ꧀ꦤꦶꦱ꧀ ꦒꦼꦣꦺ ꦣꦺꦮꦺ – ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦢꦺꦴꦩꦶꦤꦤ꧀ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦥꦸꦭꦶꦠꦶꦏ꧀ – ꦪꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦗꦮ. ꦆꦢꦼꦤ꧀ꦠꦶꦠꦱ꧀ ꦤꦱꦶꦪꦺꦴꦤꦭ꧀ ꦮꦶꦱ꧀ ꦢꦶꦏꦼꦩ꧀ꦧꦁꦔꦏꦺ, ꦢꦶꦏꦸꦏꦸꦃꦲꦏꦺ ꦢꦺꦤꦶꦁ ꦧꦱ ꦤꦱꦶꦪꦺꦴꦤꦭ꧀, ꦏꦫꦒꦩ꧀ꦩꦤ꧀ ꦌꦠ꧀ꦤꦶꦏ꧀, ꦥ꧀ꦭꦸꦫꦭ꧀ꦭꦶꦱ꧀ꦩꦼ ꦲꦒꦩ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦥꦺꦴꦥꦸꦭꦱꦶ ꦩꦪꦺꦴꦫꦶꦠꦱ꧀ ꦩꦸꦱ꧀ꦭꦶꦩ꧀, ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦱꦗꦫꦃ ꦏꦺꦴꦭꦺꦴꦤꦶꦪꦭ꧀ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦏꦿꦩꦤ꧀ ꦩꦫꦁ ꦲꦶꦏꦸ. ꦱꦼꦱꦤ꧀ꦠꦶ ꦤꦱꦶꦪꦺꦴꦤꦭ꧀ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ, "ꦨꦶꦤ꧀ꦤꦺꦏ ꦠꦸꦁꦒꦭ꧀ ꦆꦏ" ("ꦱꦺꦗꦺ-ꦱꦺꦗꦺ ꦤꦔꦶꦁ ꦲꦗꦼꦒ꧀ ꦩꦤꦸꦁꦒꦭ꧀"), ꦤꦸꦢꦸꦃꦲꦏꦺ ꦏꦫꦒꦩ꧀ꦩꦤ꧀ ꦏꦁ ꦤꦒꦫ. ꦱꦤꦗꦤ꧀ ꦥꦺꦴꦥꦸꦭꦱꦶ ꦒꦼꦣꦺ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦠ꧀ꦭꦠꦃ ꦥꦣꦼꦠ꧀ ꦏꦁ ꦤ꧀ꦢꦸꦤꦸꦁꦔꦶ, ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦢꦸꦮꦺ ꦠ꧀ꦭꦠꦃ ꦗꦼꦩ꧀ꦧꦂ ꦲꦫ-ꦲꦫ ꦱꦩꦸꦤ꧀ ꦏꦁ ꦚ꧀ꦗꦸꦫꦸꦁ ꦏꦫꦒꦩ꧀ꦩꦤ꧀ ꦲꦪꦠ꧀ꦠꦶ ꦠꦶꦁꦏꦠ꧀ ꦥꦭꦶꦁ ꦣꦸꦮꦸꦂ ꦏꦥꦶꦁ ꦥꦶꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦢꦸꦚ. ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦢꦸꦮꦺ ꦱꦸꦩ꧀ꦧꦼꦂ ꦢꦪ ꦲꦭꦩ꧀ ꦏꦭꦸꦧꦺꦂꦫꦤ꧀ ꦏꦪ ꦊꦔ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦒꦱ꧀ ꦧꦸꦩꦶ, ꦠꦶꦩꦃ, ꦠꦼꦩ꧀ꦧꦒ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦲꦼꦩꦱ꧀. ꦥꦼꦂꦠꦤꦶꦪꦤ꧀ ꦩ꧀ꦭꦶꦒꦶ ꦩꦿꦺꦴꦣꦸꦏ꧀ꦱꦶ ꦧꦼꦫꦱ꧀, ꦠꦺꦃ, ꦏꦺꦴꦥꦶ, ꦧꦸꦩ꧀ꦧꦺꦴꦤ꧀ ꦕꦿꦏꦺꦤ꧀ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦏꦫꦺꦠ꧀. ꦥꦂꦠ꧀ꦤꦼꦂ ꦢꦒꦁ ꦲꦸꦠꦩ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦪꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦗꦼꦥꦁ, ꦄꦩꦺꦫꦶꦏ ꦱꦫꦺꦏꦠ꧀ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦤꦒꦫ ꦠꦁꦒ ꦱꦶꦔꦥꦸꦫ, ꦩꦭꦪ꧀ꦱꦾ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦄꦈꦱ꧀ꦠꦿꦭꦶꦪ.
ꦌꦠꦶꦩꦺꦴꦭꦺꦴꦒꦶ
ꦗꦼꦤꦼꦁ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦲꦱꦭ꧀ꦭꦺ ꦱꦏ ꦥꦼꦂꦠꦭꦤ꧀ ꦪꦸꦤꦤꦶ ꦱꦏ ꦏꦭꦶ ꦱꦶꦤ꧀ꦝꦸ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦠꦼꦩ꧀ꦧꦸꦁ ꦤꦺꦱꦺꦴꦱ꧀, ꦠꦺꦒꦺꦱ꧀ꦱꦺ "ꦥꦸꦭꦺꦴ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦶꦪ".[13] ꦗꦼꦤꦼꦁ ꦏꦸꦮꦶ ꦮꦶꦱ꧀ ꦲꦤ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦄꦧꦢ꧀ ꦏꦥꦶꦁ 18, ꦲꦢꦺꦴꦃ ꦱꦏ꧀ꦢꦸꦫꦸꦁꦔꦺ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦩꦂꦢꦶꦏ.[14] ꦲꦶꦁ ꦠꦲꦸꦤ꧀ 1850, George Windsor Earl, ꦱꦮꦶꦗꦶꦤꦶꦁ ꦌꦠ꧀ꦤꦺꦴꦭꦺꦴꦒꦶ ꦆꦁꦒꦿꦶꦱ꧀, ꦔꦗꦺꦴꦏ꧀ꦏꦏꦺ ꦲꦶꦱ꧀ꦠꦶꦭꦃ Indunesians / ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦸꦤꦺꦱꦾꦤ꧀ꦱ꧀—ꦭꦤ꧀, ꦥꦶꦭꦶꦃꦲꦤꦺ, Malayunesians / ꦩꦼꦭꦪꦸꦤꦺꦱꦾꦤ꧀ꦱ꧀—ꦏꦁꦒꦺꦴ ꦏꦁ ꦤ꧀ꦢꦸꦤꦸꦁꦔꦶ "ꦏꦥꦸꦭꦺꦴꦮꦤ꧀ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦶꦪ ꦲꦸꦠꦮ ꦏꦥꦸꦭꦺꦴꦮꦤ꧀ ꦤꦸꦱꦤ꧀ꦠꦫ".[15] ꦲꦶꦁ ꦥꦸꦧ꧀ꦭꦶꦏ꧀ꦏꦱꦶ ꦏꦁ ꦥꦣ, ꦩꦸꦫꦶꦢ꧀ꦢꦺ Earl, James Richardson Logan, ꦔ꧀ꦒꦸꦤꦏ꧀ꦏꦏꦺ Indonésia / ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦩꦶꦤꦁꦏ ꦱꦶꦤꦺꦴꦤꦶꦩ꧀ ꦏꦁꦒꦺꦴ ꦏꦥꦸꦭꦺꦴꦮꦤ꧀ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦶꦪ.[16][17] ꦤꦔꦶꦁ, ꦄꦏꦣꦼꦩꦶꦱꦶ ꦮꦭꦤ꧀ꦢ ꦤꦸꦭꦶꦱ꧀ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦥꦸꦧ꧀ꦭꦶꦏ꧀ꦏꦱꦶ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦶꦪ ꦮꦺꦠꦤ꧀ ꦥꦣ ꦮꦼꦒꦃ ꦔ꧀ꦒꦸꦤꦏ꧀ꦏꦏꦺ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ. ꦤꦔꦶꦁ, ꦥꦣ ꦔ꧀ꦒꦸꦤꦏ꧀ꦏꦏꦺ ꦲꦶꦱ꧀ꦠꦶꦭꦃ ꦏꦥꦸꦭꦺꦴꦮꦤ꧀ ꦩꦭꦪꦸ (Maleische Archipel); ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦶꦪ ꦤꦺꦣꦼꦂꦭꦤ꧀ (Nederlandsch Oost Indië), ꦭꦸꦮꦶꦃ ꦏꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦝꦁ Indië; ꦮꦠꦤ꧀ (de Oost); ꦭꦤ꧀ Insulinde.[18] ꦱꦮꦶꦱ꧀ꦱꦺ 1900, ꦗꦼꦤꦼꦁ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦢꦢꦶ ꦭꦸꦮꦶꦃ ꦲꦸꦩꦸꦩ꧀ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦭꦶꦁꦏꦸꦁꦔꦤ꧀ ꦄꦏꦣꦼꦩꦶꦏ꧀ ꦚ꧀ꦗꦧ ꦤꦺꦣꦼꦂꦭꦤ꧀, ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦒꦺꦴꦭꦺꦴꦁꦔꦤ꧀ ꦤꦱꦶꦪꦺꦴꦤꦭ꧀ꦭꦶꦱ꧀ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦩꦶꦲꦸꦤꦏ꧀ꦏꦏꦺ ꦏꦸꦮꦶ ꦏꦁꦒꦺꦴ ꦌꦏ꧀ꦱ꧀ꦥꦿꦺꦱꦶ ꦥꦸꦭꦶꦠꦶꦏ꧀.[18]Adolf Bastian, ꦱꦏ ꦈꦤꦶꦥ꦳ꦼꦂꦱꦶꦠꦱ꧀ ꦧꦺꦂꦭꦶꦤ꧀, ꦩꦺꦴꦥꦸꦭꦺꦂꦏꦺ ꦗꦼꦤꦼꦁ ꦏꦸꦮꦶ ꦭꦶꦮꦠ꧀ ꦧꦸꦏꦸꦤꦺ Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894. ꦥꦼꦭꦗꦂ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦏꦁ ꦥꦶꦱꦤ꧀ꦤꦤ꧀ ꦔ꧀ꦒꦸꦤꦏ꧀ꦏꦏꦺ ꦗꦼꦤꦼꦁ ꦲꦶꦏꦶ ꦪꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦱꦸꦮꦂꦢꦶ ꦱꦸꦂꦪꦢꦶꦤꦶꦁꦫꦠ꧀ (ꦏꦶ ꦲꦗꦂ ꦢꦺꦮꦤ꧀ꦠꦫ), ꦤꦭꦶꦤ ꦔꦼꦢꦼꦒ꧀ꦏꦏꦺ ꦏꦤ꧀ꦠꦺꦴꦂ ꦧꦼꦫꦶꦠ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦤꦺꦣꦼꦂꦭꦤ꧀ ꦏꦁ ꦗꦼꦤꦼꦁꦔꦺ Indonesisch Pers-bureau ꦲꦶꦁ 1913.[14]
ꦱꦗꦫꦃ
ꦏꦁꦒꦺꦴ ꦠꦸꦭꦶꦱ꧀ꦱꦤ꧀ ꦱꦏ꧀ꦧꦚ꧀ꦗꦸꦂꦫꦺ, ꦥꦶꦂꦱꦤꦶ ꦱꦗꦫꦃ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ
ꦲꦶꦁ ꦱꦩꦢꦾꦤꦶꦁ ꦥꦿꦧꦮ ꦲꦒꦩ ꦲꦶꦤ꧀ꦝꦸ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦧꦸꦢ꧀ꦢ, ꦱꦮꦠꦫ ꦏꦫꦠꦺꦴꦤ꧀ ꦔꦢꦼꦒ꧀ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦥꦸꦭꦺꦴ ꦱꦸꦩꦠꦿ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦗꦮ ꦮꦶꦮꦶꦠ꧀ ꦄꦧꦢ꧀ ꦏꦥꦶꦁ 7 ꦔꦤ꧀ꦠꦶ ꦄꦧꦢ꧀ ꦏꦥꦶꦁ 14. ꦠꦼꦏꦤꦶꦁ ꦥꦼꦢꦒꦁ-ꦥꦼꦢꦒꦁ ꦄꦫꦧ꧀ ꦱꦏ ꦒꦸꦗꦫꦠ꧀, ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦶꦪ ꦱꦏ꧀ꦧꦚ꧀ꦗꦸꦂꦫꦺ ꦤꦼꦥꦸꦁꦔꦏꦺ ꦲꦒꦩ ꦆꦱ꧀ꦭꦩ꧀ ꦏꦁ ꦥꦸꦁꦏꦱ꧀ꦱꦤ꧀ꦤꦺ ꦢꦢꦶ ꦲꦒꦩ ꦒꦼꦣꦺ ꦣꦺꦮꦺ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ, ꦤꦔꦶꦁ ꦠꦺꦪꦺꦴꦫꦶ ꦒꦸꦗꦫꦠ꧀ ꦲꦶꦏꦶ ꦠꦏ꧀ꦱꦶꦃ ꦒꦺꦴꦗꦒ꧀-ꦒꦗꦼꦒ꧀ (ꦢꦶꦫꦒꦸꦏꦺ).
ꦮꦺꦴꦁ-ꦮꦺꦴꦁ ꦌꦫꦺꦴꦥ ꦠꦼꦏ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦥꦮꦶꦠꦤꦶꦁ ꦄꦧꦢ꧀ ꦏꦥꦶꦁ 16 ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦤꦭꦶꦏ ꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦤꦼꦩꦸ ꦤꦒꦫ-ꦤꦒꦫ ꦕꦶꦭꦶꦏ꧀. ꦤꦒꦫ-ꦤꦒꦫ ꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦧꦚ꧀ꦗꦸꦂ ꦏꦤ꧀ꦛꦶ ꦒꦩ꧀ꦥꦁ ꦢꦶꦏꦸꦮꦱꦤꦶ ꦱꦸꦥꦪ ꦱꦏ꧀ꦧꦚ꧀ꦗꦸꦂꦫꦺ ꦲꦸꦒ ꦧꦶꦱ ꦔꦸꦮꦱꦤꦶ ꦢꦺꦴꦭ꧀-ꦠꦶꦤꦸꦏꦸ ꦧꦸꦩ꧀ꦧꦺꦴꦤ꧀ ꦕꦿꦏꦺꦤ꧀ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦠ꧀ꦭꦠꦃ ꦏꦸꦤꦸ.
ꦲꦶꦁ ꦄꦧꦢ꧀ ꦏꦥꦶꦁ 17, ꦤꦒꦫ ꦮꦭꦤ꧀ꦢ ꦏꦁ ꦤꦭꦶꦏ ꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦩꦶꦤꦁꦏ ꦤꦒꦫ ꦥꦭꦶꦁ ꦏꦸꦮꦠ꧀ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦠ꧀ꦭꦠꦃ ꦌꦫꦺꦴꦥ, ꦤꦼꦭꦸꦏ꧀ꦏꦏꦺ ꦤꦒꦫ ꦆꦁꦒꦿꦶꦱ꧀ (ꦧꦿꦶꦠꦶꦱ꧀) ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦥꦺꦴꦂꦠꦸꦒꦶꦱ꧀ (ꦏꦗꦧ ꦠ꧀ꦭꦠꦃ ꦗꦗꦃꦲꦤ꧀ ꦥꦺꦴꦂꦠꦸꦒꦶꦱ꧀ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦠꦶꦩꦺꦴꦂ ꦮꦺꦠꦤ꧀). ꦧꦁꦱ ꦮꦭꦤ꧀ꦢ ꦚ꧀ꦗꦗꦃ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦔꦤ꧀ꦠꦶ ꦩꦁꦱꦤꦺ ꦥꦼꦫꦁ ꦢꦸꦚ ꦏꦥꦶꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴ. ꦮꦶꦮꦶꦠ꧀ꦠꦤ꧀ꦤꦺ ꦮꦭꦤ꧀ꦢ ꦔꦢꦼꦒ꧀ꦒꦏꦺ ꦱꦾꦫꦶꦏꦠ꧀ ꦲꦶꦤ꧀ꦝꦶꦪ ꦮꦺꦠꦤ꧀ ꦭꦤ꧀ꦢ, ꦪꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦲꦂꦩꦢ ꦤꦶꦪꦒ ꦧꦸꦩ꧀ꦧꦺꦴꦤ꧀ ꦕꦿꦏꦺꦤ꧀ ꦢꦸꦮꦺꦏꦺ ꦥꦩꦫꦺꦤ꧀ꦠꦃ ꦏꦫꦗꦤ꧀ ꦮꦭꦤ꧀ꦢ, ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦱꦏ꧀ꦧꦚ꧀ꦗꦸꦂꦫꦺ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦮꦶꦮꦶꦠ꧀ꦠꦤ꧀ꦤꦶꦁ ꦄꦧꦢ꧀ ꦏꦥꦶꦁ 19 ꦏꦤ꧀ꦛꦶ ꦏꦼꦏꦸꦮꦠ꧀ꦠꦤ꧀ ꦥꦿꦗꦸꦫꦶꦠ꧀ꦠꦺ ꦮꦶꦮꦶꦠ꧀ ꦧ꧀ꦭꦏ꧀-ꦧ꧀ꦭꦏ꧀ꦏꦤ꧀ ꦚ꧀ꦗꦗꦃ ꦠ꧀ꦭꦠꦃ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ.
ꦱꦩꦁꦱ ꦥꦼꦫꦁ ꦢꦸꦚ II, ꦮꦭꦤ꧀ꦢ (ꦭꦤ꧀ꦢ) ꦢꦶꦗꦗꦃ ꦏꦫꦺꦴ ꦗꦺꦂꦩꦤ꧀, ꦤꦭꦶꦏ ꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦗꦼꦥꦸꦤ꧀ ꦔꦸꦮꦱꦤꦶ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ. ꦱꦮꦶꦱ꧀ꦱꦺ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦏꦥꦶꦭꦸꦠ꧀ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦠꦲꦸꦤ꧀ 1942, ꦥꦶꦲꦏ꧀ ꦗꦼꦥꦸꦤ꧀ ꦱꦼꦱꦺꦴꦫ ꦪꦺꦤ꧀ ꦥꦫ ꦥꦼꦗꦸꦮꦁ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦏꦚ꧀ꦕ ꦢꦼꦢꦒꦁꦔꦤ꧀ ꦏꦁ ꦏꦺꦴꦎꦥꦼꦫꦠꦶꦥ꦳꧀ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦱꦼꦢꦾ ꦔ꧀ꦒꦼꦭꦂ ꦥꦿꦗꦸꦫꦶꦠ꧀ ꦪꦺꦤ꧀ ꦢꦶꦧꦸꦠꦸꦃꦲꦏꦺ. ꦱꦸꦏꦂꦤ, ꦲꦠ꧀ꦠ, K. H. ꦩꦱ꧀ ꦩꦤ꧀ꦱꦸꦂ, ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦏꦶ ꦲꦗꦂ ꦢꦺꦮꦤ꧀ꦠꦫ ꦧꦚ꧀ꦗꦸꦂ ꦲꦺꦴꦭꦺꦃ ꦏꦤꦸꦒꦿꦃꦲꦤ꧀ ꦱꦏ ꦩꦲꦫꦗ ꦗꦼꦥꦸꦤ꧀ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦠꦲꦸꦤ꧀ 1943.
ꦲꦶꦁ ꦩꦉꦠ꧀ 1945, ꦥꦶꦲꦏ꧀ ꦗꦼꦥꦁ ꦔ꧀ꦒꦮꦺ ꦱꦮꦶꦗꦶꦤꦶꦁ ꦏꦸꦩꦶꦠꦼ ꦏꦁꦒꦺꦴ ꦩꦂꦢꦶꦏꦏꦺ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦧꦺꦱꦾ, ꦱꦏ꧀ꦧꦸꦧꦂꦫꦺ ꦥꦼꦫꦁ ꦥꦱꦶꦥ꦳ꦶꦏ꧀ ꦫꦩ꧀ꦥꦸꦁ ꦲꦺꦴꦁ ꦠꦲꦸꦤ꧀ ꦲꦶꦏꦸ. ꦏꦲꦤꦤ꧀ ꦲꦶꦏꦶ ꦏꦱꦸꦫꦸꦁ ꦢꦺꦤꦶꦁ ꦎꦂꦒꦤ꧀ꦤꦶꦱꦱꦶ ꦥꦫ ꦩꦸꦣ, ꦒꦺꦴꦭꦺꦴꦁꦔꦤ꧀ ꦥꦶꦩ꧀ꦥꦶꦤ꧀ꦤꦤ꧀ ꦱꦸꦏꦂꦤ ꦚꦺꦴꦧ ꦱꦸꦥꦪ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦧꦶꦱ ꦩꦂꦢꦶꦏ.
ꦲꦶꦁ ꦩꦢꦾ ꦭꦶꦪ, ꦮꦭꦤ꧀ꦢ ꦔꦶꦫꦶꦩ꧀ꦩꦏꦺ ꦥꦿꦗꦸꦫꦶꦠ꧀ ꦏꦁꦒꦺꦴ ꦔꦽꦧꦸꦠ꧀ ꦩꦤꦺꦃ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ.
ꦱꦩꦸꦧꦫꦁ ꦥꦿꦠꦶꦁꦏꦃ ꦏꦼꦧꦏ꧀ ꦒꦼꦠꦶꦃ ꦏꦁꦒꦺꦴ ꦤꦁꦒꦸꦭꦁꦔꦶ ꦥꦫ ꦥꦼꦗꦸꦮꦁ ꦏꦁꦒꦺꦴ ꦩꦂꦢꦶꦏ ꦩꦲꦸ ꦧꦚ꧀ꦗꦸꦂ ꦏꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦝꦁ ꦏꦤ꧀ꦛꦶ ꦱꦼꦧꦸꦠ꧀ꦠꦤ꧀ 'ꦠꦸꦩꦶꦤ꧀ꦢꦏ꧀ ꦥꦸꦭꦶꦱꦶ' (Actie Politioneel). ꦥꦸꦁꦏꦱ꧀ꦱꦤ꧀ꦤꦺ, ꦮꦭꦤ꧀ꦢ ꦒꦼꦊꦩ꧀ ꦤꦩ꧀ꦥ ꦲꦏ꧀ ꦧꦁꦱ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦏꦁꦒꦺꦴ ꦩꦂꦢꦶꦏ ꦲꦶꦁ 27 ꦣꦺꦱꦺꦩ꧀ꦧꦼꦂ 1949 ꦱꦮꦶꦱ꧀ꦱꦺ ꦏꦱꦸꦫꦸꦁ-ꦱꦸꦫꦸꦁ ꦧꦁꦱ-ꦧꦁꦱ ꦭꦶꦪ, ꦩ꧀ꦭꦶꦒꦶ ꦄꦩꦺꦫꦶꦏ ꦱꦫꦺꦏꦠ꧀. ꦱꦸꦏꦂꦤ ꦢꦢꦶ ꦥꦿꦺꦱꦶꦣꦺꦤ꧀ ꦥꦶꦱꦤ꧀ꦤꦤ꧀ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦏꦤ꧀ꦛꦶ ꦩꦸꦲꦩ꧀ꦩꦢ꧀ ꦲꦠ꧀ꦠ ꦢꦢꦶ ꦮꦏꦶꦭ꧀ ꦥꦿꦺꦱꦶꦣꦺꦤ꧀.
ꦲꦶꦁ ꦮꦂꦱ 1950-ꦲꦤ꧀ ꦭꦤ꧀ 1960-ꦲꦤ꧀, ꦥꦩꦫꦶꦤ꧀ꦠꦃ ꦱꦸꦏꦂꦤ ꦮꦶꦮꦶꦠ꧀ ꦩꦔꦪꦸꦧꦒꦾ ꦧ꧀ꦭꦺꦴꦏ꧀ ꦱꦺꦴꦱꦶꦪꦭ꧀ꦭꦶꦱ꧀, ꦏꦪꦠ ꦕꦶꦤ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦪꦸꦒꦺꦴꦱ꧀ꦭꦮꦶꦪ. ꦲꦶꦁ ꦠꦲꦸꦤ꧀ 1960-ꦲꦤ꧀ ꦲꦸꦒ ꦏꦼꦢꦢꦺꦤ꧀ ꦏꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦥ꦳ꦿꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦠꦱꦶ ꦲꦢꦸ ꦠꦶꦪꦱ ꦏꦫꦺꦴ ꦤꦒꦫ ꦠꦁꦒ, ꦩꦭꦪ꧀ꦱꦾ, ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦔꦽꦱꦸꦭꦤꦺ ꦥꦫ ꦏꦮꦸꦭ ꦲꦩꦂꦒ ꦲꦸꦫꦶꦥ꧀ ꦏꦼꦕꦶꦁꦏꦿꦁꦔꦤ꧀ ꦠꦩ꧀ꦧꦃ ꦤ꧀ꦢꦢꦿ.
ꦗꦺꦤ꧀ꦢꦿꦭ꧀ ꦱꦸꦲꦂꦠ ꦢꦢꦶ ꦥꦿꦺꦱꦶꦣꦺꦤ꧀ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦠꦲꦸꦤ꧀ 1967 ꦏꦤ꧀ꦛꦶ ꦲꦊꦱ꧀ꦱꦤ꧀ ꦔꦩꦤ꧀ꦤꦏꦺ ꦤꦒꦫ ꦱꦏ ꦲꦚ꧀ꦕꦼꦩ꧀ꦩꦤ꧀ ꦏꦺꦴꦩꦸꦤꦶꦱ꧀ ꦠꦸꦩꦿꦥ꧀ ꦱꦸꦏꦂꦤ ꦏꦁ ꦤꦭꦶꦏ ꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦱꦤ꧀ꦱꦪ ꦠꦤ꧀ꦥ ꦢꦪ. ꦱꦮꦶꦱ꧀ꦱꦺ ꦱꦸꦲꦂꦠ ꦚꦼꦏꦼꦭ꧀ ꦏꦸꦮꦱ, PKI ꦢꦶꦧꦸꦧꦂꦫꦏꦺ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦮꦂꦒ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦏꦁ ꦢꦶꦏꦶꦫ ꦕꦮꦺ-ꦕꦮꦺ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦩꦺꦭꦸ ꦏꦺꦴꦩꦸꦤꦶꦱ꧀ ꦲꦏꦺꦃ ꦏꦁ ꦩꦠꦶ. ꦲꦶꦁ 32 ꦠꦲꦸꦤ꧀ ꦥꦩꦫꦺꦤ꧀ꦠꦃꦲꦤ꧀ ꦱꦸꦲꦂꦠ ꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦩꦲꦸ ꦎꦂꦢꦼ ꦧꦫꦸ, ꦏꦁꦒꦺꦴ ꦩ꧀ꦧꦺꦢꦏ꧀ꦏꦏꦺ ꦏꦫꦺꦴ ꦗꦩꦤ꧀ ꦱꦸꦏꦂꦤ ꦏꦁ ꦩꦲꦸ ꦎꦂꦢꦼ ꦭꦩ.
ꦱꦸꦲꦂꦠ ꦏꦱꦶꦭ꧀ ꦚꦼꦣꦏ꧀ꦏꦏꦺ ꦩꦤꦺꦃ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦩꦫꦁ ꦤꦒꦫ-ꦤꦒꦫ ꦩꦚ꧀ꦕ-ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦏꦱꦶꦭ꧀ ꦤꦸꦮꦸꦃꦲꦏꦺ ꦌꦏꦺꦴꦤꦺꦴꦩꦶ ꦏꦁ ꦩꦚ꧀ꦗꦶꦭ, ꦲꦺꦴꦫ ꦏꦺꦠꦁ ꦲꦺꦴꦫ ꦮꦫꦠ. ꦲꦶꦁ ꦮꦶꦮꦶꦠ꧀ꦠꦤ꧀ ꦎꦢꦼ ꦧꦫꦸ, ꦱ꧀ꦠꦿꦠꦺꦒꦶ ꦌꦏꦺꦴꦤꦺꦴꦩꦶ ꦤꦒꦫ ꦢꦶꦒꦮꦺ ꦢꦺꦤꦶꦁ ꦱꦥꦺꦫꦁꦔꦤ꧀ ꦲꦃꦭꦶ ꦌꦏꦺꦴꦤꦺꦴꦩꦶ ꦭꦸꦭꦸꦱ꧀ꦱꦤ꧀ ꦥ꦳ꦏꦸꦭ꧀ꦠꦱ꧀ ꦌꦏꦺꦴꦤꦺꦴꦩꦶ University of California at Berkeley, ꦏꦁ ꦢꦶꦮꦺꦤꦺꦃꦲꦶ ꦒꦼꦭꦂ "ꦒꦺꦴꦭꦺꦴꦁꦔꦤ꧀ Berkeley". ꦤꦔꦶꦁ, ꦱꦸꦲꦂꦠ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦱꦏ꧀ꦏꦚ꧀ꦕꦤꦺ ꦧꦶꦱ ꦢꦶꦭꦺꦁꦱꦺꦂꦫꦏꦺ ꦱꦮꦶꦱ꧀ꦱꦺ ꦲꦸꦚ꧀ꦗꦸꦏ꧀ ꦫꦱ ꦏꦁ ꦱꦸꦩꦿꦩ꧀ꦧꦃ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦱꦣꦺꦔꦃ ꦥꦥꦤ꧀. ꦠꦩ꧀ꦧꦃ ꦩꦤꦺꦃ, ꦤꦒꦫ ꦭꦒꦶ ꦏꦼꦧ꧀ꦭꦤ꧀ꦝꦁ ꦲꦸꦠꦁ ꦲꦩꦂꦒ ꦏꦿꦶꦱꦶꦱ꧀. ꦱꦸꦲꦂꦠ ꦩꦸꦣꦸꦤ꧀ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦠꦲꦸꦤ꧀ 1998.
ꦱꦏ 1998 ꦔꦤ꧀ꦠꦶ 2001, ꦲꦤ ꦠꦼꦭꦸꦁ (3) ꦥꦿꦺꦱꦶꦣꦺꦤ꧀ ꦏꦁ ꦩꦸꦁ ꦱꦼꦣꦺꦭ ꦮꦲꦺ ꦔꦿꦱꦏ꧀ꦏꦏꦺ ꦏꦸꦮꦱ, ꦪꦲꦶꦏꦸ: ꦧꦲꦂꦫꦸꦢ꧀ꦢꦶꦤ꧀ ꦪꦸꦱꦸꦥ꦳꧀ (ꦧ꧈ꦗ꧈) ꦲꦧꦶꦧ꧀ꦧꦶ, ꦄꦧ꧀ꦢꦸꦂꦫꦃꦩꦤ꧀ ꦮꦲꦶꦢ꧀ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦩꦺꦒꦮꦠꦶ ꦱꦸꦏꦂꦤꦥꦸꦠꦿꦶ. ꦲꦶꦁ ꦠꦲꦸꦤ꧀ 2004 ꦥꦿꦺꦱꦶꦣꦺꦤ꧀ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦏꦁ ꦲꦚꦂ ꦪꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦱꦸꦱꦶꦭ ꦧꦩ꧀ꦧꦁ ꦪꦸꦣꦪꦤ.
ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦱꦲꦶꦏꦶ ꦔ꧀ꦒꦺꦩ꧀ꦧꦺꦴꦭ꧀ ꦥꦿꦏꦫ ꦲꦏꦺꦃ, ꦮꦶꦮꦶꦠ꧀ ꦱꦏ ꦣꦸꦮꦶꦠ꧀, ꦥꦸꦭꦶꦠꦶꦏ꧀, ꦲꦒꦩ, ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦫꦱ ꦒꦸꦪꦸꦧ꧀. ꦄꦕꦺꦃ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦥꦥꦸꦮ ꦚꦺꦴꦧ ꦩꦼꦠꦸ ꦱꦏ ꦤꦒꦫ ꦏꦼꦱꦠꦸꦮꦤ꧀ ꦫꦺꦥꦸꦧ꧀ꦭꦶꦏ꧀ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ. ꦠꦶꦩꦺꦴꦂ ꦮꦺꦠꦤ꧀ ꦩꦭꦃ ꦮꦶꦱ꧀ ꦔꦸꦩꦤ꧀ꦝꦁꦏꦺ ꦏꦩꦂꦢꦶꦏꦤ꧀ꦤꦺ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦠꦲꦸꦤ꧀ 2002 ꦱꦮꦶꦱ꧀ꦱꦺ 24 ꦠꦲꦸꦤ꧀ ꦢꦶꦏꦸꦮꦱꦤꦶ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦭꦤ꧀ 3 ꦠꦲꦸꦤ꧀ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦥꦁꦒꦸꦭꦮꦼꦤ꧀ꦛꦲꦺ ꦥ꧈ꦧ꧈ꦧ꧈. ꦩꦱꦭꦃ ꦥꦭꦶꦁ ꦲꦚꦂ ꦏꦁ ꦏꦠꦶꦩ꧀ꦥ ꦤꦒꦫ ꦲꦶꦏꦶ ꦪꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦲꦤꦤꦺ ꦱꦩꦸꦧꦫꦁ ꦏꦫꦸꦱꦏ꧀ꦏꦤ꧀ ꦗꦭꦫꦤ꧀ ꦲꦭꦩ꧀.
ꦲꦶꦁ 26 ꦣꦺꦱꦺꦩ꧀ꦧꦼꦂ 2004, ꦱꦸꦤꦩꦶ ꦤꦼꦂꦗꦁ ꦥꦸꦭꦸꦃꦲꦤ꧀ ꦲꦺꦮꦸ ꦮꦂꦒ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦄꦕꦺꦃ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦥꦸꦭꦺꦴ ꦤꦶꦪꦱ꧀, ꦱꦸꦩꦠꦿ.
ꦥꦸꦭꦶꦠꦶꦏ꧀
ꦏꦁꦒꦺꦴ ꦠꦸꦭꦶꦱ꧀ꦱꦤ꧀ ꦭꦸꦮꦶꦃ ꦥꦼꦥꦏ꧀, ꦥꦶꦂꦱꦤꦶ ꦥꦸꦭꦶꦠꦶꦏ꧀ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ
ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ ꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦱꦏ ꦠꦼꦭꦸꦁ ꦤꦒꦫ (ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦶꦪ, ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ, ꦆꦱꦿꦌꦭ꧀) ꦏꦁ ꦔꦁꦒꦺꦴ ꦱꦶꦱ꧀ꦠꦼꦩ꧀ ꦣꦺꦩꦺꦴꦏꦿꦱꦶ ꦏꦤ꧀ꦛꦶ ꦥꦱ꧀ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦧꦼꦤꦼꦂ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦥꦩꦫꦺꦤ꧀ꦠꦃꦲꦤ꧀ꦤꦺ, ꦮꦸꦗꦸꦢ꧀ ꦤꦒꦫ ꦫꦺꦥꦸꦧ꧀ꦭꦶꦗ꧀ ꦥꦿꦺꦱꦶꦣꦺꦤ꧀ꦱꦶꦪꦭ꧀ ꦩꦸꦭ꧀ꦠꦶꦥꦂꦠꦺ ꦏꦁ ꦣꦺꦩꦺꦴꦏꦿꦠꦶꦱ꧀. ꦏꦪꦢꦺꦤꦺ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦤꦒꦫ-ꦤꦒꦫ ꦣꦺꦩꦺꦴꦏꦿꦱꦶ ꦭꦶꦪꦤꦺ, ꦱꦶꦱ꧀ꦠꦼꦩ꧀ ꦥꦸꦭꦶꦠꦶꦏ꧀ ꦏꦁ ꦢꦶꦣꦱꦂꦫꦏꦺ ꦩꦫꦁ ꦠꦿꦶꦪꦱ꧀ ꦥꦸꦭꦶꦠꦶꦏ꧀ꦏ ꦪꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦥꦩꦶꦱꦃꦲꦤ꧀ ꦏꦏꦸꦮꦱꦤ꧀ ꦭꦺꦒꦶꦱ꧀ꦭꦠꦶꦥ꦳꧀, ꦌꦏ꧀ꦱꦼꦏꦸꦠꦶꦥ꦳꧀ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦪꦸꦣꦶꦏꦠꦶꦥ꦳꧀. ꦏꦏꦸꦮꦱ꧀ ꦭꦺꦒꦶꦱ꧀ꦭꦠꦶꦥ꦳꧀ ꦢꦶꦕꦼꦏꦼꦭ꧀ ꦢꦺꦤꦶꦁ ꦱꦮꦶꦗꦶꦤꦶꦁ ꦊꦩ꧀ꦧꦒ ꦏꦁ ꦗꦼꦤꦼꦁꦔꦺ ꦩꦗꦼꦭꦶꦱ꧀ ꦥꦼꦂꦩꦸꦱꦾꦮꦫꦠ꧀ꦠꦤ꧀ ꦫꦏ꧀ꦪꦠ꧀ (ꦩ꧈ꦥ꧈ꦫ꧈) ꦏꦁ ꦢꦸꦩꦢꦶ ꦱꦏ ꦫꦺꦴꦁ ꦧꦢꦤ꧀ ꦪꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦣ꧈ꦥ꧈ꦫ꧈ ꦏꦁ ꦲꦁꦒꦺꦴꦠ-ꦲꦁꦒꦺꦴꦠꦤꦺ ꦮꦸꦗꦸꦢ꧀ ꦮꦏꦶꦭ꧀-ꦮꦏꦶꦭ꧀ ꦥꦂꦠꦺ ꦥꦸꦭꦶꦠꦶꦏ꧀ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦣ꧈ꦥ꧈ꦣ꧈ ꦏꦁ ꦲꦁꦒꦺꦴꦠ-ꦲꦁꦒꦺꦴꦠꦤꦺ ꦩꦏꦶꦭ꧀ꦭꦶ ꦥꦿꦺꦴꦥ꦳ꦶꦤ꧀ꦱꦶ. ꦱꦧꦼꦤ꧀ ꦭꦭꦢ꧀ꦢꦤ꧀ ꦢꦶꦮꦏꦶꦭ꧀ꦭꦶ ꦢꦺꦤꦶꦁ 4 ꦮꦏꦶꦭ꧀ ꦏꦁ ꦢꦶꦥꦶꦭꦶꦃ ꦭꦁꦱꦸꦁ ꦢꦺꦤꦶꦁ ꦫꦏ꧀ꦪꦠ꧀ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦭꦭꦢ꧀ꦢꦤ꧀ꦤꦺ ꦣꦺꦮꦺ-ꦣꦺꦮꦺ.
ꦩꦗꦼꦭꦶꦱ꧀ ꦥꦼꦂꦩꦸꦱꦾꦮꦫꦠ꧀ꦠꦤ꧀ ꦫꦏ꧀ꦪꦠ꧀ (ꦩ꧈ꦥ꧈ꦫ꧈) ꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦊꦩ꧀ꦧꦒ ꦥꦭꦶꦁ ꦣꦸꦮꦸꦂ ꦤꦒꦫ. ꦤꦔꦶꦁ ꦱꦮꦶꦱ꧀ꦱꦺ ꦄꦩꦤ꧀ꦝꦼꦩꦺꦤ꧀ ꦲꦁꦏ 4, ꦩ꧈ꦥ꧈ꦫ꧈ ꦢꦸꦢꦸ ꦊꦩ꧀ꦧꦒ ꦥꦭꦶꦁ ꦣꦸꦮꦸꦂ ꦩꦤꦺꦃ. ꦏꦲꦁꦒꦺꦴꦠꦲꦤ꧀ ꦩ꧈ꦥ꧈ꦫ꧈ ꦲꦺꦴꦮꦃ ꦱꦮꦶꦱ꧀ꦱꦺ ꦄꦩꦤ꧀ꦝꦼꦩꦺꦤ꧀ ꦈ꧈ꦈ꧈ꦣ꧈ 1945 ꦲꦶꦁ ꦥꦺꦫꦶꦪꦺꦴꦣꦼ 1999-2004. ꦏꦧꦺꦃ ꦲꦁꦒꦺꦴꦠ ꦩ꧈ꦥ꧈ꦫ꧈ ꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦲꦁꦒꦺꦴꦠ ꦣ꧈ꦥ꧈ꦫ꧈, ꦢꦶꦠꦩ꧀ꦧꦃ ꦲꦁꦒꦺꦴꦠ ꦣ꧈ꦥ꧈ꦣ (ꦣꦺꦮꦤ꧀ ꦥꦼꦂꦮꦏꦶꦭ꧀ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦭꦭꦢ꧀ꦢꦤ꧀).[19] ꦲꦁꦒꦺꦴꦠ ꦣ꧈ꦥ꧈ꦫ꧈ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦣ꧈ꦭ꧈ꦣ꧈ ꦢꦶꦥꦶꦭꦶꦃ ꦭꦶꦮꦠ꧀ ꦥꦼꦩꦶꦭꦸ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦢꦶꦭꦤ꧀ꦠꦶꦏ꧀ ꦏꦤ꧀ꦛꦶ ꦩꦁꦱ ꦏꦭꦸꦁꦒꦸꦃꦲꦤ꧀ ꦭꦶꦩꦁ ꦠꦲꦸꦤ꧀. ꦮꦶꦮꦶꦠ꧀ 2004, ꦩ꧈ꦥ꧈ꦫ꧈ ꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦥꦂꦊꦩꦺꦤ꧀ ꦱꦶꦱ꧀ꦠꦼꦩ꧀ ꦫꦺꦴꦁ ꦏꦩꦂ (bikameral|ꦧꦶꦏꦩꦺꦫꦭ꧀), ꦱꦮꦶꦱ꧀ꦱꦺ ꦏꦕꦶꦥ꧀ꦠ ꦣ꧈ꦥ꧈ꦣ꧈ ꦩꦶꦤꦁꦏ ꦏꦩꦂ ꦏꦭꦺꦴꦫꦺꦴ. ꦱꦏ꧀ꦢꦸꦫꦸꦁꦔꦺ, ꦲꦁꦒꦺꦴꦠ ꦩ꧈ꦥ꧈ꦫ꧈ ꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦏꦧꦺꦃ ꦲꦁꦒꦺꦴꦠ ꦣ꧈ꦥ꧈ꦫ꧈ ꦢꦶꦠꦩ꧀ꦧꦃ ꦲꦸꦠꦸꦱ꧀ꦱꦤ꧀ ꦒꦺꦴꦭꦺꦴꦁꦔꦤ꧀. ꦩ꧈ꦥ꧈ꦫ꧈ ꦮꦼꦏ꧀ꦠꦸ ꦲꦶꦏꦶ ꦢꦶꦥꦔꦗꦼꦁꦔꦶ ꦲꦶꦢꦪꦠ꧀ ꦤꦸꦂ ꦮꦲꦶꦢ꧀. ꦲꦁꦒꦺꦴꦠ ꦩ꧈ꦥ꧈ꦫ꧈ ꦮꦼꦏ꧀ꦠꦸ ꦲꦶꦏꦶ ꦲꦤ 550 ꦲꦁꦒꦺꦴꦠ ꦣ꧈ꦭ꧈ꦫ꧈ ꦭꦤ꧀ 128 ꦲꦁꦒꦺꦴꦠ ꦣ꧈ꦥ꧈ꦣ꧈. ꦣ꧈ꦥ꧈ꦫ꧈ ꦮꦼꦏ꧀ꦠꦸ ꦲꦶꦏꦶ ꦢꦶꦥꦔꦗꦼꦁꦔꦶ ꦄꦒꦸꦁ ꦭꦏ꧀ꦱꦤ, ꦢꦺꦤꦺ ꦣ꧈ꦥ꧈ꦣ꧈ ꦢꦶꦥꦔꦗꦼꦁꦔꦶ ꦒꦶꦤꦚ꧀ꦗꦂ ꦏꦂꦠꦱꦱ꧀ꦩꦶꦠ.
ꦊꦩ꧀ꦧꦒ ꦌꦏ꧀ꦱꦼꦏꦸꦠꦶꦥ꦳꧀ ꦥꦸꦚ꧀ꦗꦼꦂꦫꦺ ꦢꦸꦩꦸꦤꦸꦁ ꦲꦤ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦥꦿꦺꦱꦶꦣꦺꦤ꧀, ꦮꦏꦶꦭ꧀ ꦥꦿꦺꦱꦶꦣꦺꦤ꧀, ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦏꦧꦶꦤꦺꦠ꧀. ꦏꦧꦶꦤꦺꦠ꧀ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦮꦸꦗꦸꦢ꧀ ꦏꦧꦶꦤꦺꦠ꧀ ꦥꦿꦺꦱꦶꦣꦺꦤ꧀ꦱꦶꦲꦶꦭ꧀ ꦱꦲꦺꦁꦒ ꦥꦫ ꦩꦤ꧀ꦠꦿꦶ ꦠꦁꦒꦸꦁ ꦗꦮꦧ꧀ ꦩꦫꦁ ꦥꦿꦺꦱꦶꦣꦺꦤ꧀ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦲꦺꦴꦫ ꦩꦏꦶꦭ꧀ꦭꦶ ꦥꦂꦠꦺ ꦥꦸꦭꦶꦠꦶꦏ꧀ ꦏꦁ ꦲꦤ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦥꦂꦊꦩꦺꦤ꧀. ꦱꦤꦗꦤ꧀ ꦩꦁꦏꦺꦴꦤꦺꦴ, ꦥꦿꦺꦱꦶꦣꦺꦤ꧀ ꦮꦼꦏ꧀ꦠꦸ ꦲꦶꦏꦶ ꦪꦲꦶꦏꦸ ꦱꦸꦱꦶꦭ ꦧꦩ꧀ꦧꦁ ꦪꦸꦣꦪꦤ ꦏꦁ ꦢꦶꦲꦸꦱꦸꦁ ꦢꦺꦤꦶꦁ ꦥꦂꦠꦺ ꦣꦺꦩꦺꦴꦏꦿꦠ꧀ ꦲꦸꦒ ꦤꦸꦚ꧀ꦗꦸꦏ꧀ ꦱꦮꦠꦫ ꦥꦩꦶꦩ꧀ꦥꦶꦤ꧀ ꦥꦂꦠꦺ ꦥꦸꦭꦶꦠꦶꦏ꧀ ꦱꦸꦥꦪ ꦭꦸꦁꦒꦸꦃ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦏꦧꦶꦤꦺꦠ꧀ꦠꦺ. ꦠꦸꦗꦸꦮꦤ꧀ꦤꦺ ꦏꦁꦒꦺꦴ ꦚ꧀ꦗꦒ ꦱ꧀ꦠꦧꦶꦭ꧀ꦭꦶꦠꦱ꧀ ꦥꦩꦫꦺꦤ꧀ꦠꦃꦲꦤ꧀ ꦔꦺꦭꦶꦁꦔꦶ ꦏꦸꦮꦠ꧀ꦠꦺ ꦥꦺꦴꦱꦶꦱꦶ ꦊꦩ꧀ꦧꦒ ꦭꦺꦒꦶꦱ꧀ꦭꦠꦶꦥ꦳꧀. ꦤꦔꦶꦁ ꦥꦺꦴꦱ꧀-ꦥꦺꦴꦱ꧀ ꦮꦶꦒꦠꦶ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦱꦠꦿꦠꦺꦒꦶꦱ꧀ ꦭꦸꦩꦿꦃꦲꦺ ꦢꦶꦲꦶꦱꦶ ꦢꦺꦤꦶꦁ ꦩꦤ꧀ꦠꦿꦶ ꦲꦱꦭ꧀ ꦱꦏ ꦮꦺꦴꦁ ꦏꦁ ꦢꦶꦲꦁꦒꦼꦥ꧀ ꦲꦃꦭꦶ ꦱꦗꦼꦫꦺꦴꦤꦶꦁ ꦧꦶꦣꦁꦔꦺ.
ꦊꦩ꧀ꦧꦒ ꦪꦸꦣꦶꦏꦠꦶꦥ꦳꧀ ꦮꦶꦮꦶꦠ꧀ ꦩꦁꦱ ꦫꦺꦥ꦳ꦺꦴꦂꦩꦱꦶ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦲꦤꦤꦺ ꦄꦩꦤ꧀ꦣꦼꦩꦺꦤ꧀ ꦈ꧈ꦈ꧈ꦣ꧈ 1945 ꦢꦶꦲꦪꦃꦲꦶ ꦢꦺꦤꦶꦁ ꦩꦃꦏꦩꦃ ꦄꦒꦸꦁ, ꦏꦺꦴꦩꦶꦱꦶ ꦪꦸꦣꦶꦱꦶꦪꦭ꧀, ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦩꦃꦏꦩꦃ ꦏꦺꦴꦤ꧀ꦱ꧀ꦠꦶꦠꦸꦱꦶ, ꦏꦊꦧꦸ ꦥꦔꦠꦸꦂꦫꦤ꧀ ꦄꦢ꧀ꦩꦶꦤꦶꦱ꧀ꦠꦿꦱꦶ ꦥꦫ ꦲꦭꦶꦩ꧀. ꦱꦤꦗꦤ꧀ ꦩꦁꦏꦺꦴꦤꦺꦴ ꦩꦤ꧀ꦠꦿꦶ ꦲꦸꦏꦸꦩ꧀ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦲꦏ꧀ ꦄꦱꦱꦶ ꦩꦤꦸꦁꦱ ꦠꦼꦠꦼꦭ꧀ ꦲꦤ ꦲꦶꦁ ꦏꦧꦶꦤꦺꦠ꧀.
ꦠꦧꦼꦭ꧀ ꦥꦿꦺꦴꦥ꦳ꦶꦤ꧀ꦱꦶ
ꦭꦩ꧀ꦧꦁ | ꦥꦿꦺꦴꦥ꦳ꦶꦤ꧀ꦱꦶ | ꦄꦏꦿꦺꦴꦤꦶꦩ꧀ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦶꦪ | ISO[26] | ꦏꦸꦛ ꦏꦿꦗꦤ꧀ | ꦕꦕꦃ ꦗꦶꦮ (2015)[27] | ꦗꦼꦩ꧀ꦧꦂ (km²) | ꦏꦼꦥꦣꦼꦠ꧀ꦠꦤ꧀ per km² (2010) |
ꦈꦤꦶꦠ꧀ ꦒꦺꦪꦺꦴꦒꦿꦥ꦳ꦶꦱ꧀ | ꦕꦕꦃꦲꦺ ꦏꦸꦛ ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦏꦧꦸꦥꦠꦺꦤ꧀ |
ꦕꦕꦃꦲꦺ ꦏꦸꦛ |
ꦕꦕꦃꦲꦺ ꦏꦧꦸꦥꦠꦺꦤ꧀ |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Acèh | Acèh | ID-AC | Banda Acèh | 4,993,385 | 57,956 | 77 | Sumatra | 23 | 5 | 18 | |
Bali | Bali | ID-BA | Denpasar | 4,148,588 | 5,780 | 621 | Kapuloan Nusa Tenggara | 9 | 1 | 8 | |
Kapuloan Bangka Belitung | Babel | ID-BB | Pangkalpinang | 1,370,331 | 16,424 | 64 | Sumatra | 7 | 1 | 6 | |
Banten | Banten | ID-BT | Serang | 11,934,373 | 9,662 | 909 | Jawa | 8 | 4 | 4 | |
Bengkulu | Bengkulu | ID-BE | Bengkulu | 1,872,136 | 19,919 | 84 | Sumatra | 10 | 1 | 9 | |
Jawa Tengah | Jateng | ID-JT | Semarang | 33,753,023 | 40,800 | 894 | Jawa | 35 | 6 | 29 | |
Kalimantan Tengah | Kalteng | ID-KT | Palangka Raya | 2,490,178 | 153,564 | 14 | Kalimantan | 14 | 1 | 13 | |
Sulawesi Tengah | Sulteng | ID-ST | Palu | 2,872,857 | 61,841 | 41 | Sulawesi | 13 | 1 | 12 | |
Jawa Wétan | Jatim | ID-JI | Surabaya | 38,828,061 | 47,799 | 828 | Jawa | 38 | 9 | 29 | |
Kalimantan Wétan | Kaltim | ID-KI | Samarinda | 3,422,676 | 139,462 | 22 | Kalimantan | 10 | 3 | 7 | |
Nusa Tenggara Wétan | NTT | ID-NT | Kupang | 5,112,760 | 48,718 | 92 | Kapuloan Nusa Tenggara | 22 | 1 | 21 | |
Gorontalo | Gorontalo | ID-GO | Gorontalo | 1,131,670 | 11,257 | 94 | Sulawesi | 6 | 1 | 5 | |
Daerah Khusus Ibukota Jakarta | DKI | ID-JK | Jakarta | 10,154,134 | 664 | 12,786 | Jawa | 6 | 5 | 1 | |
Jambi | Jambi | ID-JA | Jambi | 3,397,164 | 50,058 | 57 | Sumatra | 11 | 2 | 9 | |
Lampung | Lampung | ID-LA | Bandar Lampung | 8,109,601 | 34,623 | 226 | Sumatra | 15 | 2 | 13 | |
Maluku | Maluku | ID-MA | Ambon | 1,683,856 | 46,914 | 32 | Kapuloan Maluku | 11 | 2 | 9 | |
Kalimantan Lor | Kaltara | ID-KU | Tanjung Selor | 639,639 | 72,275 | 10 | Kalimantan | 5 | 1 | 4 | |
Maluku Lor | Malut | ID-MU | Sofifi | 1,160,275 | 31,982 | 31 | Kapuloan Maluku | 10 | 2 | 8 | |
Sulawesi Lor | Sulut | ID-SA | Manado | 2,409,921 | 13,851 | 162 | Sulawesi | 15 | 4 | 11 | |
Sumatra Lor | Sumut | ID-SU | Medan | 13,923,262 | 72,981 | 188 | Sumatra | 33 | 8 | 25 | |
Papua | Papua | ID-PA | Jayapura | 3,143,088 | 319,036 | 8 | Papua | 29 | 1 | 28 | |
Riau | Riau | ID-RI | Pekanbaru | 6,330,941 | 87,023 | 52 | Sumatra | 12 | 2 | 10 | |
Kapuloan Riau | Kepri | ID-KR | Tanjungpinang | 1,968,313 | 8,201 | 208 | Sumatra | 7 | 2 | 5 | |
Sulawesi Tenggara | Sultra | ID-SG | Kendari | 2,495,248 | 38,067 | 51 | Sulawesi | 17 | 2 | 15 | |
Kalimantan Kidul | Kalsel | ID-KS | Banjarmasin | 3,984,315 | 38,744 | 96 | Kalimantan | 13 | 2 | 11 | |
Sulawesi Kidul | Sulsel | ID-SN | Makassar | 8,512,608 | 46,717 | 151 | Sulawesi | 24 | 3 | 21 | |
Sumatra Kidul | Sumsel | ID-SS | Palembang | 8,043,042 | 91,592 | 86 | Sumatra | 17 | 4 | 13 | |
Jawa Kulon | Jabar | ID-JB | Bandung | 46,668,214 | 35,377 | 1,176 | Jawa | 27 | 9 | 18 | |
Kalimantan Kulon | Kalbar | ID-KB | Pontianak | 4,783,209 | 147,307 | 30 | Kalimantan | 14 | 2 | 12 | |
Nusa Tenggara Wétan | NTB | ID-NB | Mataram | 4,830,118 | 18,572 | 234 | Kapuloan Nusa Tenggara | 10 | 2 | 8 | |
Papua Kulon | Pabar | ID-PB | Manokwari | 868,819 | 97,024 | 8 | Papua | 13 | 1 | 12 | |
Sulawesi Kulon | Sulbar | ID-SR | Mamuju | 1,279,994 | 16,787 | 73 | Sulawesi | 6 | 0 | 6 | |
Sumatra Kulon | Sumbar | ID-SB | Padang | 5,190,577 | 42,012 | 110 | Sumatra | 19 | 7 | 12 | |
Daérah Istiméwa Yogyakarta | DIY | ID-YO | Yogyakarta | 3,675,768 | 3,133 | 1,138 | Jawa | 5 | 1 | 4 |
- "ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦾ" (édhisi ka-Country Studies). US Library of Congress.
{{cite journal}}
: Cite journal requires|journal=
(pitulung) - "Population Projection by Province, 2010–2035". Badan Pusat Statistik. Dibukak ing 18 Mèi 2015.
- "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects: Indonesia". World Economic Outlook. International Monetary Fund. April 2016. Dibukak ing 26 Agustus 2016.
- "Gini Index". World Bank. Dibukak ing 2 Maret 2011.
- "Human Development Report 2015" (PDF). United Nations. Dibukak ing 15 Dhésèmber 2015.
- Yang, Heriyanto (August 2005). "The History and Legal Position of Confucianism in Post Independence Indonesia" (PDF). Marburg Journal of Religion. 10 (1): 8. Dibukak ing 2 Oktober 2006.
- "Hanya ada 13.466 Pulau di Indonésia". National Geographic Indonésia . 8 ꦥ꦳ꦺꦧꦿꦸꦮꦫꦶ 2012. Diarsip saka sing asli ing 2017-12-28. Dibukak ing 2021-10-16.
{{cite news}}
: Check date values in:|date=
(pitulung) - "The Naming Procedures of Indonésia's Islands", Tenth United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names, New York, 31 July – 9 August 2012, United Nations Economic and Social Council
- Burhanudin, Jajat; Dijk, Kees van (31 Januari 2013). "Islam in Indonésia: Contrasting Images and Interpretations". Amsterdam University Press – lumantar Google Books.
- Lamoureux, Florence (1 Januari 2003). "Indonésia: A Global Studies Handbook". ABC-CLIO – lumantar Google Books.
- TomascikA (1996). The Ecology of the Indonesian Seas – Part One. Hong Kong: Periplus Editions. ISBN 962-593-078-7.
- Anshory, Irfan (16 Agustus 2004). "Asal-usul Nama Indonésia" (ing basa Indonesia). Pikiran Rakyat. Diarsip saka sing asli ing 15 Dhésèmber 2006. Dibukak ing 5 Oktober 2006.
- Earl, George SW (1850). "On The Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian and Malay-Polynesian Nations". Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA): 119.
- Logan, James Richardson (1850). "The Ethnology of the Indian Archipelago: Embracing Enquiries into the Continental Relations of the Indo-Pacific Islanders". Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA): 4:252–347.
- Earl, George SW (1850). "On The Leading Characteristics of the Papuan, Australian and Malay-Polynesian Nations". Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia (JIAEA): 254, 277–8.
- Justus M van der Kroef (1951). "The Term Indonésia: Its Origin and Usage". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 71 (3): 166–71. doi:10.2307/595186. JSTOR 595186.
- Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat. Amandemen Ketiga Undang-Undang Dasar 1945 (PDF). Diarsip saka sing asli (PDF) ing 2006-12-01. Dibukak ing 2006-12-13.
- Michelle Ann Miller (2004). "The Acèh law: a serious response to Acehnese separatism?". Asian Ethnicity. 5 (3): 333–351. doi:10.1080/1463136042000259789.
- ꦣꦺꦮꦤ꧀ ꦥꦼꦂꦮꦏꦶꦭ꧀ꦭꦤ꧀ ꦫꦏ꧀ꦪꦠ꧀ (1999). Chapter XIV Other Provisions, Art. 122; Indonésia Law No. 5/1974 Concerning Basic Principles on Administration in the RegionPDF (146 KiB) (versi pertalan). ꦥꦿꦺꦱꦶꦣꦺꦤ꧀ ꦆꦤ꧀ꦝꦺꦴꦤꦺꦱꦾ (1974). Chapter VII Transitional Provisions, Art. 91
- Dursin, Richel; Yamin, Kafil (18 Novèmber 2004). "Another Fine Mess in Papua". Editorial. The Jakarta Post. Dibukak ing 2006-10-05.; "Papua Chronology Confusing Signals from Jakarta". The Jakarta Post. 18 Novèmber 2004. Dibukak ing 5 Oktober 2006.
- Burr, W.; Evans, M.L. (6 Dhésèmber 2001). "Ford and Kissinger Gave Green Light to Indonésia's Invasion of East Timor, 1975: New Documents Detail Conversations with Suharto". National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 62. National Security Archive, The George Washington University, Washington, DC. Dibukak ing 17 Sèptèmber 2006.
- "Data Wilayah – Kementerian Dalam Negeri – Republik Indonesia". Diarsip saka sing asli ing 2012-02-22. Dibukak ing 2011-02-16.
- Buku Induk—Kode dan Data Wilayah Administrasi Pemerintahan per Provinsi, Kabupaten/Kota dan Kecamatan Seluruh Indonesia (PDF) , Kementerian Dalam Negeri [Ministry of Home Affairs], diarsip saka sing asli (PDF) ing 2016-11-19
- Badan Pusat Statistik/Statistics Indonesia (November 2015). Hasil Survei Penduduk Antas Sensus 2015/Result of the 2015 Intercensal Population Census (PDF) . ISBN 978-979-064-912-5. Dibukak ing 10 Juni 2018.
Wikiwand in your browser!
Seamless Wikipedia browsing. On steroids.
Every time you click a link to Wikipedia, Wiktionary or Wikiquote in your browser's search results, it will show the modern Wikiwand interface.
Wikiwand extension is a five stars, simple, with minimum permission required to keep your browsing private, safe and transparent.