Prices of chemical elements

See also: Diamonds as an investment, Scandium § Price, Rhodium § Mining and price, Palladium as an investment, Silver as an investment, Tin § Price and exchanges, Iridium § Production, Platinum as an investment, Gold as an investment, Bismuth § Price, and Uranium market

This is a list of prices of chemical elements. Listed here are mainly average market prices for bulk trade of commodities. Data on elements' abundance in Earth's crust is added for comparison.

As of 2020^[update], the most expensive non-synthetic element by both mass and volume is rhodium. It is followed by caesium, iridium and palladium by mass and iridium, gold and platinum by volume. Carbon in the form of diamond can be more expensive than rhodium. Per-kilogram prices of some synthetic radioisotopes range to trillions of dollars. While the difficulty of obtaining macroscopic samples of synthetic elements in part explains their high value, there has been interest in converting base metals to gold (Chrysopoeia) since ancient times, but only deeper understanding of nuclear physics has allowed the actual production of a tiny amount of gold from other elements for research purposes as demonstrated by Glenn Seaborg.^[1][2] However, both this and other routes of synthesis of precious metals via nuclear reactions is orders of magnitude removed from economic viability.

Chlorine, sulfur and carbon (as coal) are cheapest by mass. Hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and chlorine are cheapest by volume at atmospheric pressure.

When there is no public data on the element in its pure form, price of a compound is used, per mass of element contained. This implicitly puts the value of compounds' other constituents, and the cost of extraction of the element, at zero. For elements whose radiological properties are important, individual isotopes and isomers are listed. The price listing for radioisotopes is not exhaustive.

Chart

Z	Symbol	Name	Density[a] (⁠kg/L⁠)	Abundance and total mass in Earth's crust[b] (⁠mg/kg⁠)	Price[7]		Year	Source	Notes
					USD/kg	USD/L[c]
1	H	Hydrogen	0.00008988	1400 (3.878×1019 kg)	1.39	0.000125	2012	DOE Hydrogen[8]	[d]
1	2H (D)	Deuterium	0.0001667[10]		13400	2.23	2020	CIL[11]	[e]
2	He	Helium	0.0001785	0.008 (2.216×1014 kg)	24.0	0.00429	2018	USGS MCS[14]	[f]
3	Li	Lithium	0.534	20 (5.54×1017 kg)	81.4–85.6	43.4–45.7	2020	SMM[16][g]	[h]
4	Be	Beryllium	1.85	2.8 (7.756×1016 kg)	857	1590	2020	ISE 2020[17][i]	[j]
5	B	Boron	2.34	10 (2.77×1017 kg)	3.68	8.62	2019	CEIC Data[18][k]	[l]
6	C	Carbon	2.267	200 (5.54×1018 kg)	0.122	0.28	2018	EIA Coal[19]	[m]
7	N	Nitrogen	0.0012506	19 (5.263×1017 kg)	0.140	0.000175	2001	Hypertextbook[24]	[n]
8	O	Oxygen	0.001429	461000 (1.277×1022 kg)	0.154	0.000220	2001	Hypertextbook[24]	[o]
9	F	Fluorine	0.001696	585 (1.62×1019 kg)	1.84–2.16	0.00311 – 0.00365	2017	Echemi[25]	[p]
10	Ne	Neon	0.0008999	0.005 (1.385×1014 kg)	240	0.21	1999	Ullmann[26]	[q]
11	Na	Sodium	0.971	23600 (6.537×1020 kg)	2.57–3.43	2.49–3.33	2020	SMM[27][g]	[r]
12	Mg	Magnesium	1.738	23300 (6.454×1020 kg)	2.32	4.03	2019	Preismonitor[20][s]	[t]
13	Al	Aluminium	2.698	82300 (2.28×1021 kg)	1.79	4.84	2019	Preismonitor[20][s]	[u]
14	Si	Silicon	2.3296	282000 (7.811×1021 kg)	1.70	3.97	2019	Preismonitor[20][s]	[v]
15	P	Phosphorus	1.82	1050 (2.909×1019 kg)	2.69	4.90	2019	CEIC Data[18][k]	[w]
16	S	Sulfur	2.067	350 (9.695×1018 kg)	0.0926	0.191	2019	CEIC Data[18][k]
17	Cl	Chlorine	0.003214	145 (4.075×1018 kg)	0.082	0.00026	2013	CnAgri[29]	[x]
18	Ar	Argon	0.0017837	3.5 (9.695×1016 kg)	0.931	0.00166	2019	UNLV[31]	[y]
19	K	Potassium	0.862	20900 (5.789×1020 kg)	12.1–13.6	10.5–11.7	2020	SMM[32][g]	[z]
20	Ca	Calcium	1.54	41500 (1.15×1021 kg)	2.21–2.35	3.41–3.63	2020	SMM[33][g]	[aa]
21	Sc	Scandium	2.989	22 (6.094×1017 kg)	3460	10300	2020	ISE 2020[34][ab]	[ac]
22	Ti	Titanium	4.54	5650 (1.565×1020 kg)	11.1–11.7	50.5–53.1	2020	SMM[35][g]	[ad]
23	V	Vanadium	6.11	120 (3.324×1018 kg)	357–385	2180–2350	2020	SMM[36][g]	[ae]
24	Cr	Chromium	7.15	102 (2.825×1018 kg)	9.40	67.2	2019	Preismonitor[20][s]	[af]
25	Mn	Manganese	7.44	950 (2.632×1019 kg)	1.82	13.6	2019	Preismonitor[20][s]	[ag]
26	Fe	Iron	7.874	56300 (1.565×1021 kg)	0.424	3.34	2020	SMM[37][g]	[ah]
27	Co	Cobalt	8.86	25 (6.925×1017 kg)	32.8	291	2019	Preismonitor[20][s]	[ai]
28	Ni	Nickel	8.912	84 (2.327×1018 kg)	13.9	124	2019	Preismonitor[20][s]	[aj]
29	Cu	Copper	8.96	60 (1.662×1018 kg)	6.00	53.8	2019	Preismonitor[20][s]	[ak]
30	Zn	Zinc	7.134	70 (1.939×1018 kg)	2.55	18.2	2019	Preismonitor[20][s]	[al]
31	Ga	Gallium	5.907	19 (5.263×1017 kg)	148	872	2019	Preismonitor[20][s]	[am]
32	Ge	Germanium	5.323	1.5 (4.155×1016 kg)	914–1010	4860–5390	2020	SMM[39][g]	[an]
33	As	Arsenic	5.776	1.8 (4.986×1016 kg)	0.999–1.31	5.77–7.58	2020	SMM[40][g]	[ao]
34	Se	Selenium	4.809	0.05 (1.385×1015 kg)	21.4	103	2019	Preismonitor[20][s]	[ap]
35	Br	Bromine	3.122	2.4 (6.648×1016 kg)	4.39	13.7	2019	CEIC Data[18][k]
36	Kr	Krypton	0.003733	1×10−4 (2.77×1012 kg)	290	1.1	1999	Ullmann[26]	[aq]
37	Rb	Rubidium	1.532	90 (2.493×1018 kg)	15500	23700	2018	USGS MCS[14]	[ar]
38	Sr	Strontium	2.64	370 (1.025×1019 kg)	6.53–6.68	17.2–17.6	2019	ISE 2019[41]	[as]
39	Y	Yttrium	4.469	33 (9.141×1017 kg)	31.0	139	2019	Preismonitor[20][s]	[at]
40	Zr	Zirconium	6.506	165 (4.571×1018 kg)	35.7–37.1	232–241	2020	SMM[42][g]	[au]
41	Nb	Niobium	8.57	20 (5.54×1017 kg)	61.4–85.6	526–734	2020	SMM[43][g]	[av]
42	Mo	Molybdenum	10.22	1.2 (3.324×1016 kg)	40.1	410	2019	Preismonitor[20][s]	[aw]
43	Tc	Technetium	11.5	~ 3×10−9[ax] (8.31×107 kg)	100000	1200000	2004[ay]	CRC Handbook[az]
43	99mTc	Technetium-99m	11.5		1.9×1012	22×1012	2008	NRC[46]	[ba]
44	Ru	Ruthenium	12.37	0.001 (2.77×1013 kg)	10400 – 10600	129000 – 131000	2020	SMM[47][g]	[bb]
45	Rh	Rhodium	12.41	0.001 (2.77×1013 kg)	147000	1820000	2019	Preismonitor[20][s]	[bc]
46	Pd	Palladium	12.02	0.015 (4.155×1014 kg)	49500	595000	2019	Preismonitor[20][s]	[bd]
47	Ag	Silver	10.501	0.075 (2.0775×1015 kg)	521	5470	2019	Preismonitor[20][s]	[be]
48	Cd	Cadmium	8.69	0.159 (4.4043×1015 kg)	2.73	23.8	2019	Preismonitor[20][s]	[bf]
49	In	Indium	7.31	0.25 (6.925×1015 kg)	167	1220	2019	Preismonitor[20][s]	[bg]
50	Sn	Tin	7.287	2.3 (6.371×1016 kg)	18.7	136	2019	Preismonitor[20][s]	[bh]
51	Sb	Antimony	6.685	0.2 (5.54×1015 kg)	5.79	38.7	2019	Preismonitor[20][s]	[bi]
52	Te	Tellurium	6.232	0.001 (2.77×1013 kg)	63.5	396	2019	Preismonitor[20][s]	[bj]
53	I	Iodine	4.93	0.45 (1.2465×1016 kg)	35	173	2019	Industrial Minerals[48]	[bk]
54	Xe	Xenon	0.005887	3×10−5 (8.31×1011 kg)	1800	11	1999	Ullmann[26]	[bl]
55	Cs	Caesium	1.873	3 (8.31×1016 kg)	61800	116000	2018	USGS MCS[14]	[bm]
56	Ba	Barium	3.594	425 (1.177×1019 kg)	0.246–0.275	0.886–0.990	2016	USGS MYB 2016[49]	[bn]
57	La	Lanthanum	6.145	39 (1.08×1018 kg)	4.78–4.92	29.4–30.3	2020	SMM[51][g]	[bo]
58	Ce	Cerium	6.77	66.5 (1.84205×1018 kg)	4.57–4.71	30.9–31.9	2020	SMM[52][g]	[bp]
59	Pr	Praseodymium	6.773	9.2 (2.5484×1017 kg)	103	695	2019	Preismonitor[20][s]	[bq]
60	Nd	Neodymium	7.007	41.5 (1.14955×1018 kg)	57.5	403	2019	Preismonitor[20][s]	[br]
61	147Pm	Promethium-147	7.26		460000	3400000	2003	Radiochemistry Society[53]	[bs]
62	Sm	Samarium	7.52	7.05 (1.95285×1017 kg)	13.9	104	2019	Preismonitor[20][s]	[bt]
63	Eu	Europium	5.243	2 (5.54×1016 kg)	31.4	165	2020	ISE 2020[34][ab]	[bu]
64	Gd	Gadolinium	7.895	6.2 (1.7174×1017 kg)	28.6	226	2020	ISE 2020[34][ab]	[bv]
65	Tb	Terbium	8.229	1.2 (3.324×1016 kg)	658	5410	2019	Preismonitor[20][s]	[bw]
66	Dy	Dysprosium	8.55	5.2 (1.4404×1017 kg)	307	2630	2019	Preismonitor[20][s]	[bx]
67	Ho	Holmium	8.795	1.3 (3.601×1016 kg)	57.1	503	2020	ISE 2020[34][ab]	[by]
68	Er	Erbium	9.066	3.5 (9.695×1016 kg)	26.4	240	2020	ISE 2020[34][ab]	[bz]
69	Tm	Thulium	9.321	0.52 (1.4404×1016 kg)	3000	28000	2003	IMAR[54][ca]	[cb]
70	Yb	Ytterbium	6.965	3.2 (8.864×1016 kg)	17.1	119	2020	ISE 2020[34][ab]	[cc]
71	Lu	Lutetium	9.84	0.8 (2.216×1016 kg)	643	6330	2020	ISE 2020[34][ab]	[cd]
72	Hf	Hafnium	13.31	3 (8.31×1016 kg)	900	12000	2017	USGS MCS[14]	[ce]
73	Ta	Tantalum	16.654	2 (5.54×1016 kg)	298–312	4960–5200	2019	ISE 2019[41]	[cf]
74	W	Tungsten	19.25	1.3 (3.601×1016 kg)	35.3	679	2019	Preismonitor[20][s]	[cg]
75	Re	Rhenium	21.02	7×10−4 (1.939×1013 kg)	3010–4150	63300 – 87300	2020	SMM[55][g]	[ch]
76	Os	Osmium	22.61	0.002 (5.54×1013 kg)	1922040	43427016	2025	Osmium-preis[56]
77	Ir	Iridium	22.56	0.001 (2.77×1013 kg)	144000	3276000	2025	Umicore[57]
78	Pt	Platinum	21.46	0.005 (1.385×1014 kg)	27800	596000	2019	Preismonitor[20][s]	[ci]
79	Au	Gold	19.282	0.004 (1.108×1014 kg)	75430	1454441	2024	London gold fix	[cj]
80	Hg	Mercury	13.5336	0.085 (2.3545×1015 kg)	30.2	409	2017	USGS MCS[14]	[ck]
81	Tl	Thallium	11.85	0.85 (2.3545×1016 kg)	4200	49800	2017	USGS MCS[14]
82	Pb	Lead	11.342	14 (3.878×1017 kg)	2.00	22.6	2019	Preismonitor[20][s]	[cl]
83	Bi	Bismuth	9.807	0.009 (2.493×1014 kg)	6.36	62.4	2019	Preismonitor[20][s]	[cm]
84	209Po	Polonium-209	9.32		49.2×1012	458×1012	2004[ay]	CRC Handbook (ORNL)[cn]
85	At	Astatine	7	3×10−20[ax] (8.31×10−4 kg)	Not traded.				[co]
86	Rn	Radon	0.00973	4×10−13[ax] (1.108×104 kg)	Not traded.				[cp]
87	Fr	Francium	1.87	~ 1×10−18[ax] (2.77×10−2 kg)	Not traded.				[cq]
88	Ra	Radium	5.5	9×10−7[ax] (2.493×1010 kg)	Negative price.				[cr]
89	225Ac	Actinium-225	10.07		29×1012	290×1012	2004[ay]	CRC Handbook (ORNL)[cn]
90	Th	Thorium	11.72	9.6 (2.6592×1017 kg)	287	3360	2010	USGS MYB 2012[62]	[cs]
91	Pa	Protactinium	15.37	1.4×10−6[ax] (3.878×1010 kg)	No reliable price available.				[ct]
92	U	Uranium	18.95	2.7 (7.479×1016 kg)	101	1910	2018	EIA Uranium Marketing[64]	[cu]
93	Np	Neptunium	20.45	≤ 3×10−12[ax] (8.31×104 kg)	660000	13500000	2003[ay]	Pomona[65]	[cv]
94	239Pu	Plutonium-239	19.84		6490000	129000000	2019	DOE OSTI[66]	[cw]
95	241Am	Americium-241	13.69	0	728000	9970000	1998	NWA[67][cx]	[cy]
95	243Am	Americium-243	13.69	0	750000	10300000	2004[ay]	CRC Handbook (ORNL)[cn]
96	244Cm	Curium-244	13.51	0	185000000	2.50×109	2004[ay]	CRC Handbook (ORNL)[cn]
96	248Cm	Curium-248	13.51	0	160×109	2.16×1012	2004[ay]	CRC Handbook (ORNL)[cn]
97	249Bk	Berkelium-249	14.79	0	185×109	2.74×1012	2004[ay]	CRC Handbook (ORNL)[cn]
98	249Cf	Californium-249	15.1	0	185×109	2.79×1012	2004[ay]	CRC Handbook (ORNL)[cn]
98	252Cf	Californium-252	15.1	0	60.0×109	906×109	2004[ay]	CRC Handbook (ORNL)[cn]
99	Es	Einsteinium	8.84	0	Not traded.				[cz]
100	Fm	Fermium	(9.7)	0	Not traded.				[da]
101	Md	Mendelevium	(10.3)	0	Not traded.				[db]
102	No	Nobelium	(9.9)	0	Not traded.				[dc]
103	Lr	Lawrencium	(15.6)	0	Not traded.				[dd]
104	Rf	Rutherfordium	(23.2)	0	Not traded.				[de]
105	Db	Dubnium	(29.3)	0	Not traded.				[df]
106	Sg	Seaborgium	(35.0)	0	Not traded.				[dg]
107	Bh	Bohrium	(37.1)	0	Not traded.				[dh]
108	Hs	Hassium	(40.7)	0	Not traded.				[di]
109	Mt	Meitnerium	(37.4)	0	Not traded.				[dj]
110	Ds	Darmstadtium	(34.8)	0	Not traded.				[dk]
111	Rg	Roentgenium	(28.7)	0	Not traded.				[dl]
112	Cn	Copernicium	(14.0)	0	Not traded.				[dm]
113	Nh	Nihonium	(16)	0	Not traded.				[dn]
114	Fl	Flerovium	(9.928)	0	Not traded.				[do]
115	Mc	Moscovium	(13.5)	0	Not traded.				[dp]
116	Lv	Livermorium	(12.9)	0	Not traded.				[dq]
117	Ts	Tennessine	(7.2)	0	Not traded.				[dr]
118	Og	Oganesson	(7)	0	Not traded.				[ds]

See also

• 2000s commodities boom

Notes

1. Density for 0 °C, 101.325 kPa.^[3] For individual isotopes except deuterium, density of base element is used. Values in parentheses are theoretical predictions.
2. Unless otherwise indicated, elements are primordial – they occur naturally, and not through decay.
3. Price per volume for 0 °C, 101.325 kPa, pure element. For individual isotopes except deuterium, density of base element is used.
4. Prices of hydrogen produced by distributed steam methane reforming, as predicted by H2A Production Model from United States Department of Energy,^[9] assuming price of natural gas of US$3/MMBtu (US$10/MWh; US$0.10/m³). Does not include cost of storage and distribution.
5. 99.8% pure compressed deuterium gas, in lot size of 850 L (142 g). Also sold by same supplier in the form of heavy water at price of 3940 USD per kg deuterium.^[12] In 2016, Iran sold 32 tons of heavy water to United States for 1336 USD per kg deuterium.^[13]
6. Crude helium sold to non-government users in United States in 2018. In the same year, stockpiles of US government helium were sold on auctions for average price of US$0.00989/L.^[15]
7. Spot market price range on 3 February 2020.
8. Min. 99% pure.
9. Market price on 5 February 2020
10. Min. 99% pure.
11. Average price in November 2019. Data from China Petroleum and Chemical Industry Federation.
12. In the form of boric acid, price per boron contained. Min. 99% pure.
13. In the form of anthracite, price per carbon contained, assuming 90% carbon content. There is a wide variation of price of carbon depending on its form. Lower ranks of coal can be less expensive, for example sub-bituminous coal can cost around US$0.038/kg carbon.^[19] Graphite flakes can cost around US$0.9/kg carbon.^[20] Price of synthetic industrial diamond for grinding and polishing can range from 1200 to 13300 USD/kg, while cost per weight of large synthetic diamonds for industrial applications can be on the order of million dollars per kilogram.^[21]
14. As liquid nitrogen.
15. As liquid oxygen.
16. In the form of anhydrous hydrofluoric acid, price per fluorine contained. Range of prices on Chinese market, week of 1–7 December 2017.
17. Approximate European price for buying small quantities.
18. Min 99.7% pure industrial grade sodium.
19. Price average for entire year 2019.
20. Min 99.9% pure.
21. High-grade primary aluminium, at London Metal Exchange warehouse.
22. Min. 99.1% pure, max. 0.4% iron, 0.4% aluminium, 0.1% calcium.^[28] 10–100 mm.
23. Min. 99.9% pure yellow phosphorus.
24. As chlorine is manufactured together with sodium hydroxide in chloralkali process, relative demand for one product changes the price for the other. When demand for sodium hydroxide is relatively high, chlorine price can fall to arbitrarily low levels, even to zero.^[30]
25. Liquid argon supply contract for University of Nevada, Las Vegas.
26. Min 98.5% pure industrial grade potassium.
27. Blocks of 98.5% pure calcium obtained by reduction process.
28. Market price on 4 February 2020
29. Min. 99.99% pure.
30. Min. 99.6% pure titanium sponge.
31. Min. 99.5% pure.
32. Min. 99.2% pure.
33. Electrolytic manganese, min. 99.7% pure.
34. L8-10 pig iron. At Tangshan, China.
35. Spot price. Min. 99.8% pure. At London Metal Exchange warehouse.
36. Primary nickel. Spot price. Min. 99.8% pure. At London Metal Exchange warehouse.
37. Spot price. Grade A.^[38] At London Metal Exchange warehouse.
38. Min. 99.995% pure special high grade zinc metal. Spot price. At London Metal Exchange warehouse.
39. Min. 99.99% pure. Free on Board China.
40. Ingot. 50 Ω/cm.
41. Min. 99.5% pure.
42. Selenium powder, min. 99.9% pure.
43. Approximate European price for buying small quantities.
44. 100 g ampoules of 99.75% pure rubidium metal.
45. Min. 99% pure, Ex Works China.
46. Min. 99% pure, Free on Board China.
47. Zirconium sponge, min. 99% pure.
48. Min. 99.9% pure.
49. Min. 99.95% pure.
50. This element is transient – it occurs only through decay (and in the case of plutonium, also in traces deposited from supernovae onto Earth).
51. or earlier
52. The values reported are present in 85th edition of CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics^[44] (and possibly earlier) and remain unchanged to at least 97th edition.^[45]
53. In the form of medical doses of sodium pertechnetate made on-site in technetium-99m generators. Price per technetium contained. Range of prices for medical doses available in the United States. Technetium-99m has half-life of 6 hours, which limits its ability to be directly traded.
54. 99.95% pure.
55. 99.95% pure.
56. 99.95% pure. London bullion market afternoon fix. In warehouse.
57. 99.5% pure. Spot price. At London Metal Exchange warehouse.
58. Ingot, min. 99.99% pure.
59. Min. 99.99% pure.
60. Min. 99.85% pure. Spot price. At London Metal Exchange warehouse.
61. Ingot, min. 99.65% pure.
62. Min. 99.99% pure. Europe.
63. Min 99.5% pure. Spot market price on 2 August 2019.
64. Approximate European price for buying small quantities.
65. 1 g ampoules of 99.8% pure caesium.
66. In the form of chemical-grade barite (barium sulfate) exported from China to United States. Price per barium contained, includes cost, insurance, and freight. Barium sulfate is the primary feedstock for production of barium chemicals.^[50]
67. Min. 99% pure.
68. Min. 99% pure.
69. Min. 99% pure, Free on Board China.
70. Min. 99% pure, Free on Board China.
71. From Periodic Table of the Elements published on website of Radiochemistry Society. There is no further information as to source or specifics of this price.
72. Min. 99% pure, Free on Board China.
73. Min. 99.999% pure.
74. Min. 99.5% pure.
75. Min. 99% pure, Free on Board China.
76. Min. 99% pure, Free on Board China.
77. Min. 99.5% pure.
78. Min. 99.5% pure.
79. Source lists prices of other rare earth elements (some of which are significantly different than the ones presented in table above):

    • lanthanum – 25 USD/kg
    • cerium – 30 USD/kg
    • praseodymium – 70 USD/kg
    • neodymium – 30 USD/kg
    • samarium – 80 USD/kg
    • europium – 1600 USD/kg
    • gadolinium – 78 USD/kg
    • terbium – 630 USD/kg
    • dysprosium – 120 USD/kg
    • holmium – 350 USD/kg
    • erbium – 180 USD/kg
    • thulium – 3000 USD/kg
    • ytterbium – 484 USD/kg
    • lutetium – 4000 USD/kg
    • yttrium – 96 USD/kg
80. Price quotes from Canadian producer, for 1 kg order. 99.5–99.99% purity, Free on Board Vancouver, Canada.
81. Min. 99.99% pure.
82. Min. 99.99% pure.
83. Unwrought hafnium.
84. Min. 99.95% pure. Ex Works China.
85. Powder, particle size 2–10 μm, 99.7% pure. Free on Board China.
86. 99.99% pure.
87. 99.95% pure. London bullion market morning fix. In warehouse.
88. 99.9% pure. Afternoon London gold fix.
89. Average European Union price of 99.99% pure mercury.
90. Min. 99.97% pure. Spot price. At London Metal Exchange warehouse.
91. Refined bismuth, min. 99.99% pure.
92. Available from Oak Ridge National Laboratory as reported in CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. Price does not include packing costs. The values reported are present in Handbook's 85th edition^[44] (and possibly earlier) and remain unchanged to at least 97th edition.^[45]
93. Only under a tenth of microgram of astatine has ever been produced.^[44] Most stable isotope has half-life of 8.1 hours.
94. Used in brachytherapy until 1960s,^[58] currently radon is not used commercially.^[59]
95. Only quantities of the order of millions of atoms have been obtained for research.^[60] Most stable isotope, ²²³Fr, has half-life of 22 minutes. Francium has no commercial or medical uses.^[59]
96. Radium was historically used in the treatment of cancer, but stopped being used when more effective treatments were introduced. As medical facilities had to pay for its disposal, its price can be considered negative.^[61]
97. As 99.9% pure thorium oxide, price per thorium contained. Free on Board port of entry, duty paid.
98. In 1959–1961 Great Britain Atomic Energy Authority produced 125 g of 99.9% pure protactinium at a cost of $500000, giving the cost of 4000000 USD per kg.^[44] Periodic Table of Elements at Los Alamos National Laboratory website at one point listed protactinium-231 as available from Oak Ridge National Laboratory at a price of 280000 USD/kg.^[63]
99. Mainly as triuranium octoxide, price per uranium contained.
100. Periodic Table published by Pomona College Chemistry Department lists neptunium-237 as available from Oak Ridge National Laboratory at 660 USD/g plus packing costs.
101. Certified reference material sample in the form of plutonium(IV) oxide, price per plutonium-239 contained.
102. This source also lists price of Americium-243 as 180 USD/mg, which is much higher than reported in CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics and used in this table.
103. Available from Oak Ridge National Laboratory as reported in Nuclear Weapons FAQ.
104. Only microgram quantities have ever been produced.^[44] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 471.7 days.
105. Only tracer amounts have ever been produced.^{[44][68]: 13.2.6.} Most stable known isotope has half-life of 100.5 days.
106. Only around 10⁶ atoms have been produced in experiments.^{[68]: 13.3.6.} Most stable known isotope has half-life of 51 days.
107. Only around 10⁵ atoms have been produced in experiments.^{[68]: 13.4.6.} Most stable known isotope has half-life of 58 minutes.
108. Only around 1000 atoms have been produced in experiments.^{[68]: 13.5.6.} Most stable known isotope has half-life of 11 hours.
109. Only a few thousand atoms have been produced in experiments.^[44] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 2.5 hours.
110. Atoms of dubnium have been prepared experimentally at a rate of at most one per minute.^[69] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 29 hours.
111. Only tens of atoms have been produced in experiments.^[70] The most stable known isotope has half-life of 14 minutes.
112. Only tens of atoms have been produced in experiments.^[71] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 1 minute.
113. Only tens of atoms have been produced in experiments.^[71] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 16 seconds.
114. Only produced in experiments on a per-atom basis.^[72] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 8 seconds.
115. Only produced in experiments on a per-atom basis.^[72] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 9.6 seconds.
116. Only produced in experiments on a per-atom basis.^[72] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 2.1 minutes.
117. Only tens of atoms have been produced in experiments.^[71] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 29 seconds.
118. As of 2015, less than 100 atoms have been produced in experiments.^[73] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 8 seconds.
119. As of 2015, less than 100 atoms have been produced in experiments.^[73] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 1.9 seconds.
120. As of 2015, less than 100 atoms have been produced in experiments.^[73] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 0.65 seconds.
121. As of 2015, less than 100 atoms have been produced in experiments.^[73] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 53 ms.
122. As of 2015, less than 100 atoms have been produced in experiments.^[73] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 51 ms.
123. As of 2015, less than ten atoms have been produced in experiments.^[73] Most stable known isotope has half-life of 0.7 ms.