Explorations of the American West, 1853–1855 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Pacific Railroad Surveys (1853–1855) were a series of explorations of the American West designed to find and document possible routes for a transcontinental railroad across North America. The expeditions included surveyors, scientists, and artists and resulted in an immense body of data covering at least 400,000 square miles (1,000,000km2) on the American West. "These volumes... constitute probably the most important single contemporary source of knowledge on Western geography and history and their value is greatly enhanced by the inclusion of many beautiful plates in color of scenery, native inhabitants, fauna and flora of the Western country."[1] Published by the United States War Department from 1855 to 1860, the surveys contained significant material on natural history, including many illustrations of reptiles, amphibians, birds, and mammals. In addition to describing the route, these surveys also reported on the geology, zoology, botany, paleontology, climatology[2] of the land as well as provided ethnographic descriptions of the Native peoples encountered during the surveys. Importantly, a map of routes for a Pacific railroad, was compiled to accompany the report.[3]
An illustration of Fort Massachusetts, Colorado, made during the surveysExploration and surveys for the Pacific Railroad were carried out under the direction of Secretary of War Jefferson Davis
Starting in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, many Americans began a westward migration that would come to greatly influence the development of American history. However, water travel remained the most common and most efficient form of transit available. Soon, the development of the steam engine became an invaluable contribution to this westward expansion. As railroads gained popularity in the eastern United States during the 1830s, Americans felt an increased incentive to expand this new technology to the western frontier.
Beginning in the 1840s, several government sponsored expeditions hoped to find potential railroad routes across the west. However, no consensus route emerged due to the selfish economic motives of rival companies. In addition, cities and states competed for the route and terminus so no consensus was reached. Brigham Young, President of LDS Church, wrote, "We never went through the canyons or worked our way over the dividing ridges without asking where the rails could be laid."[4] On March 3, 1853, Congress appropriated $150,000 and authorized Secretary of War Jefferson Davis “to Ascertain the Most Practical and Economical Route for a Railroad From the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean.” Davis ordered Brevet Captain George B. McClellan and the Corps of Topographical Engineers (TOPOGS), a division in the United States Army established to “discover, open up, and make accessible the American West,” to fulfill this obligation.
The most important concern for the United States Congress involved the location of where to build the railroad. With government involvement, lobbyists attempted to influence the selected locations because of the important social, political, and economic consequences. In addition, a transcontinental railroad would become a very costly endeavor. In fact, “Even the least expensive proposed routes would equal the federal budget for one year.”[4] Despite these obstacles, a developing urgency clearly indicated the need for a transcontinental railroad. On August 16, 1856, Mr. Denver of the House Select Committee on the Pacific Railroad and Telegraph reported that:
"the necessity that exists for constructing lines of railroad and telegraphic communication between the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of this continent is no longer a question for argument; it is conceded by every one."[4]
The path of the first transcontinental railroad route was one of many proxy fights over the future of slavery in the United States exacerbated by capitulation and Mexican Cession resulting from the Treaty of Cahuenga and the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. The Compromise of 1850 which admitted California as a slave-free state, defined the geographical boundary of Texas as a slave state, banned the slave trade (but not slavery itself) in Washington DC, enhanced the Fugitive Slave Act, and most relevantly established Utah and New Mexico territories under popular sovereignty — meaning whether any future state from these territories would be free or slave would be decided by the constituency of migration at the time of the petition for statehood. The route of the first transcontinental railroad would determine whether slaves could be legally and efficiently trafficked into these geographically isolated territories.[5][6] So the route was not just ancillary to free soil policy, but could ultimately affect the balance of power between the north and south in Congress when new states were inevitably admitted into the Union out of these regional territories. Just three years after this compromise, Jefferson Davis strongly influenced the Gadsden Purchase to facilitate his preferred southern route which was not viable over the Colorado Plateau. A year after this purchase, Bleeding Kansas began on account of identical thematic tensions. The Kansas–Nebraska Act was intended to open up new lands to develop and facilitate the construction of the transcontinental railroad, however it effectively repealed the Missouri Compromise of 1820. The map of the Pacific Railroad Surveys would be published in 1855.[3][7]
Although the Pacific Railroad Surveys (1853–1855) provided valuable information regarding the possible routes for the transcontinental railroad, they were not compelling enough to lead directly to construction. Three important trends also influenced Congress’ final decision. First, the California Gold Rush and the discovery of silver in Nevada led to a dramatic increase in population in the west. Second, the secession of the South from the Union during the beginnings of the American Civil War discounted southern politicians from interfering with a plan to build a northern or central route. Third, a growing population of railroad specialists allowed Congress several options to consider the most efficient and cost effective route to build a transcontinental railroad.
In particular, railroad engineer Theodore Judah, on 1 January 1857 in Washington DC, published "A practical plan for building The Pacific Railroad", in which he outlined the general plan and argued for the need to do a detailed instrumental survey of a specific selected route for the railroad, not a general reconnaissance of several possible routes that had been done in the Pacific Railroad Surveys.[17] In winter 1859-1860, Judah was in Washington D.C. lobbying for a Pacific Railroad bill;[18] California would hold a Pacific Railroad Convention in Sacramento on the first Monday that February.[19] Judah returned to California by July,[20] lobbied local newspapers for public support,[21][22] and surveyed routes to at least[23] three[24][25] passes. After finding in Fall 1860 a practical trans-Sierra route from Sacramento over Donner Pass into the Great Basin of Nevada and after finding investors to incorporate the Central Pacific Railroad in June 1861, Judah was sent in October 1861 to Washington DC to lobby for the Pacific Railway bill to aid in the construction of the first transcontinental railroad along his trans-Sierra route.[23][13] The route followed much of the Stephens–Townsend–Murphy Party 1844 route and John C. Frémont's 1845-1846 route through the sierra crest[26] made infamous by the Donner Party,[14] rather than the Madeline Pass route mapped by the Pacific Railroad Surveys,[3] or the intermediate Beckwourth Pass on account of political factors not included in the original surveys. The route followed a prior survey for a Donner Pass wagon toll road by Simon G. Elliott.[27] Central Pacific Railroad entrepreneurs and engineers, including Charles Marsh, who made much of their prior fortunes facilitating the mining on the Mother Lode as well as the Comstock Lode, had been involved in the Henness Pass Turnpike Company and would later invest in the Dutch Flat and Donner Lake Wagon Road (DFDLWR) servicing Meadow Lake Mining District speculation in what would be popularly known as the "Dutch Flat Swindle" which politically threatened the timely completion of the railroad.[28][29][30][31][32]
"Red-tailed Black Hawk" from volume X of the War Department's report to Congress
Leading naturalists were attached to all the survey parties:
Dr. James G. Cooper served as naturalist for the western division, and Dr. George Suckley for the eastern division of the exploration of the Northern Pacific route.[37]
Botanist Frederick Creutzfeldt accompanied the exploring party of the Central Pacific route but was killed with Captain Gunnison in Utah.[38]
Dr. Caleb B. R. Kennerly accompanied the Whipple expedition on the southern route.[39]
Heermann accompanied Lt. Williamson on the expedition up the West Coast from Fort Yuma to San Francisco[37]
Most of these men also served as the medical doctors for their exploring parties, and most were expert in only one or two areas of natural history. With limited time and expertise, their main charge was simply collection and preparation of plants and animals to be shipped back east for further study. They collected everything: plants, mammals, fish, insects, birds, mollusks, snakes, lizards, and turtles, both common and rare. This approach was described by geologist William P. Blake, who accompanied Lt. Parke's expedition:
The collections in this department of science were not restricted to what was new or undescribed, as I considered it quite as interesting to know that the flora of this region were the same as those common to other parts of the country, or that they were different. It was, therefore, established as a rule to collect everything; it being as easy at the conclusion of the survey to reject what was superfluous, as it would be difficult to replace what was wanting.[38]
Plants and animals were preserved as well as could be in the expeditions' camps, and shipped overland back to the Smithsonian Institution and other centers of expertise for evaluation. This trip often required months of rugged travel, and not all the collections survived. Heermann, in a letter of transmittal to Lt. Parke, commented on these difficulties: "Of the reptiles, in which these countries are very rich, I had succeeded in forming quite a handsome collection, but unfortunately the cans in which they were contained became leaky, and possessing neither the means to correct this mishap, nor the alcohol to supply that wasted, they were all lost with the exception of a few specimens which I preserved in bottles."[37]
Several of the expedition naturalists wrote reports on their areas of expertise which were included in the War Department's report to Congress. For example, Heermann wrote the report on birds, and Hallowell wrote the report on reptiles for Lt. Parke's exploration. Other leading naturalists contributed to the War Department's report by describing the collections returned from the exploring parties. These included Professor Asa Gray, Dr. John L. LeConte, William Cooper, Dr. Charles Girard, William G. Binney, and Dr. John S. Newberry. Most important of these was Spencer Fullerton Baird, who was at the time assistant secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Baird not only wrote several sections of the report to Congress, but was responsible for many of the natural history illustrations. For example, the bird skins collected by the exploring parties were shipped to him. He had Smithsonian Institution artists produce engravings of the birds as they would appear in life, which were hand-tinted and included in the final report.[40]
Schubert, Frank N. (August 1980). "IV". VANGUARD OF EXPANSION Army Engineers in the Trans-Mississippi West, 1819-1879. National Park Service. Because the upper West was free soil and the lower West was slave, the choice of a route and its terminals quickly became a national issue, pitting North against South. Thus divided, Congress failed to settle on any route across the continent.
Goodrich, Carter (August 1960). Government Promotion of American Canals and Railroads, 1800–1890. Columbia University Press. p.179. ISBN978-0837177731. [E]ast-west railroads were being pushed forward in the hope that they might serve as the "first links" of the transcontinental. The question, according to a Wisconsin paper, was: "Shall the upper West or shall the lower West be the great avenue of trade and commerce?" As the Civil War approached, the bitterest controversy was between those who wished a road to serve the North and those who wished a road to serve the South.
"Platform Adopted by the Democratic State Convention in Sacramento on 6th of September". Daily National Democrat. October 21, 1860. p.4. LCCNsn84038814. That one of the necessities of the age, in a military and commercial point of view, is speedy communication between the Atlantic and Pacific States, and the Democratic party pledge themselves to such a constitutional enactment as will insure the construction of a railroad to the Pacific Coast at the earliest practicable period. [...] Resolved, That we are in favor of a Homestead Bill the establishment of a daily Overland Mail the building of an Overland Telegraph and Pacific Railroad; and that there is no constitutional objection to Congress extending such aid as will insure the speedy construction of such road.
"Railroad Route Discovered". Nevada City, California: The Nevada Journal. November 9, 1860. p.2. ISSN2642-3677. LCCNsn84026884. Archived from the original(PDF) on 1997-11-01. We had the pleasure of a call from T. D. Judah, Esq., Civil Engineer, on Thursday evening last, who had just returned from the reconnaissance of the county between Auburn and the summit of the Sierra Nevada, with reference to its capabilities for a railroad route. Mr. Judah reports having discovered a most excellent route, the grade nowhere exceeding one hundred feet to the mile. The course pursued by Mr. Judah, was from Auburn to Illinoistown, thence to Dutch Flat, and from thence to the summit. We learn from Mr. Judah, that the greatest depression from a uniform grade occurs between Illinoistown and Dutch Flat. This line continues along the unbroken ridge south of Bear River till near Dutch Flat, when it runs up Canon Creek a short distance to near its source, when by a not very considerable cut the banks of Bear River are reached, thence continuing up the stream till the country becomes flattened near the source of Bear River and the South Yuba, the transit is made across the summit near, but much lower than the old Truckee road. The summit at the crossing is 5900 ft. above the level of the sea. The route from Folsom to the summit is but 82 miles in length as measured by the odometer, and presents no obstacles of any moment. The representations of Mr. Judah are so favorable that fifty thousand dollars in stock have been already subscribed by citizens of Dutch Flat and this place, and immediate steps will be taken, we understand to organize a company. A few days since Mr. Judah, in company with Charles Marsh, Esq., proceeded over the Henness route, taking elevations and measuring distances as they went. The distance from this city to Maple's Ranch by odometer is a few rods more than fifty miles. The measurement was made by the longest route traveled. The observations made on the trip we shall publish as soon as put in proper shape. Beyond question the reconnaissance lately made by Mr. Judah has developed one of the most important facts bearing upon the welfare of Central California. It has been believed by a majority of people that the mountains skirting the eastern boundary of California were impassable to the iron horse except to the extreme north or more extreme south. Actual surveys had determined no other points of entrance. It is true, we had attempted to prove years since by ditch surveys and casual observations that a railroad route through the Henness Pass was perfectly practicable. But these attempts of ours had not the warrant of a survey by a competent engineer with proper instruments. The observations of Mr. Judah have set all doubts at rest, and demonstrate that a splendid crossing for a railroad over the mountains exists, on a direct line from our navigable waters to Missouri. Besides saving at least a hundred and fifty miles of road, a route entering the State at the point indicated will best subserve the interests of the bulk of our population. This important fact will figure largely, if we mistake not, in all future discussions in Congress on Pacific Railroad Bills, and we do not hesitate to express a belief that the discovery of Mr. Judah will prove the initiative step which will one day lead a railroad across the mountains on the eastern border of Nevada county.
"Central Pacific Railroad of California". Nevada City, California: The Nevada Journal. December 21, 1860. p.1. ISSN2642-3677. LCCNsn84026884. Archived from the original(PDF) on 1997-11-01. The object of this communication is to direct attention to some newly discovered facts with reference to the route of the Pacific Railroad throughout the State of California. Confident of the existence of a practicable line across the Sierra Nevada mountains, nearer and more direct than the proposed line via Madeline Pass and head waters of the Sacramento, I have devoted the past few months to an exploration of several routes and passes through Central California, resulting in the discovery of a practicable route from the city of Sacramento, upon the divide between Bear river and the North Fork of the American, via Illinoistown, Dutch Flat, and Summit Valley to the Truckee river; which gives nearly a direct line to Washoe, with maximum grades of one hundred feet per mile. The distance from Sacramento to Summit is one hundred and two miles; to the State line, about one hundred and fifteen miles: to Truckee City, one hundred and forty-six miles: and to Virginia City, one hundred and sixty-two miles. The elevation of the Pass is 6,600 feet. [...] Respectfully, &e. THEODORE D. JUDAH
Hinkley, Helen (1969). Rails from the West a Biography of Theodore D. Judah. Golden West Books. p.113. ISBN9781019380277. OCLC13415. Archived from the original on 2017-01-20. In December South Carolina seceded and on Christmas day the Richmond Examiner called for Maryland to join Virginia in seizing the capital. After the first break secession came fast: Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas. South Carolina guns had fired on the Union flag and had driven off Star of the West when it attempted to reinforce Fort Sumter without arousing much indignation in Washington. Judah knew that now there would be no reluctance to consider a railroad bill in Congress for fear that a discussion of whether the railroad should take a southern or a central route would make a wider breach between the North and South. By the time Judah returned from Dutch Flat to Sacramento in March, that breach was already as wide as it could ever be. Southern Congressmen had left their seats and Southern Senators, many of them giving impassioned farewell addresses, had left the Senate to take over positions of importance in the new Confederacy.
"The Pacific Railroad". Nevada National Democrat. January 14, 1860. p.2. LCCNsn86058101. The Washington correspondent of the San Francisco Bulletin says the President in the course of an interview with Mr. Judah of California expressed himself warmly in favor of the Pacific Railroad, and said that no man cast of the Rocky Mountains desired its construction more heartily than he did.
"Pacific Rail Road". The Nevada Journal. October 12, 1860. p.2. LCCNsn84026884. We have received the subjoined letter from T. E. Judah, Esq. We shall commence soon and publish the documents, which are of an interesting nature. No other paper having paid attention to this matter, the record of the proceedings of the Railroad Committee will, we trust, be found valuable [...]
"Gold Hill and Lincoln Railroad". Daily National Democrat. October 21, 1860. p.3. LCCNsn84038814. T. D. Judah, in a communication to the Bee, and referring to the California Central Railroad from Folsom to Lincoln, says so far from any prospect of its being discontinued or abandoned, there is little doubt but that road, the California Central Railroad, will be in operation to Lincoln by December or January next...
"Pacific Railroad". The Nevada Democrat. December 6, 1860. p.2. LCCNsn84026881. A letter appears in the Placerville Democrat, which states that Mr. Judah, the Engineer, has recently made examinations of the Georgetown, Lake and Henness Passes, and will leave for Washington on the next steamer with a view of laying the information he has obtained before Congress.
"Railroad Movement". Daily National Democrat. December 5, 1860. p.2. LCCNsn84038814. A letter published in the Placerville Democrat, states that Mr Judah, the engineer, has recently made examinations of the Georgetown, Lake and Henness Passes, and will leave for Washington on the next steamer with a view of laying the information he has obtained before Congress.
Ann Shelby Blum (1993). Picturing Nature: American Nineteenth-Century Zoological Illustration. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 403 pages. ISBN0-691-08578-1.
Herman J. Viola (1987). Exploring the West. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Books. 256 pages. ISBN0-8109-0889-1.
Edward S. Wallace (1955). The Great Reconnaissance—Soldiers, Artists and Scientists on the Frontier 1848-1861. Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company. 288 pages.
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