List of solar storms

Solar storms of different types are caused by disturbances on the Sun, most often from coronal mass ejections (CMEs) and solar flares from active regions, or, less often, from coronal holes. Minor to active solar storms (i.e. storming restricted to higher latitudes) may occur under elevated background solar wind conditions when the interplanetary magnetic field (IMF) orientation is southward, toward the Earth (which also leads to much stronger storming conditions from CME-related sources).^{[1][2][3][4][5]}

A coronal mass ejection (CME)

Background

Main article: Solar storm

Active stars produce disturbances in space weather and, if strong enough, in their own space climate. Science studies such phenomena with the field of heliophysics, which is an interdisciplinary combination of solar physics and planetary science.

In the Solar System, the Sun can produce intense geomagnetic and energetic particle storms capable of causing severe damage to technology. It can result in large scale power outages, disruption or blackouts of radio communications (including GPS), damage or destruction of submarine communications cables,^[6] and temporary to permanent disabling of satellites and other electronics. Intense solar storms may also be hazardous to high-latitude, high-altitude aviation^[7] and to human spaceflight.^[8] Geomagnetic storms are the cause of aurora.^[9] The most significant known solar storm, across the most parameters, occurred in September 1859 and is known as the "Carrington event".^[10] The damage from the most potent solar storms is capable of existentially threatening the stability of modern human civilization,^[11][8] although proper preparedness and mitigation can substantially reduce the hazards.^[12][13]

Proxy data from Earth, as well as analysis of stars similar to the Sun, suggest that the Sun may be also capable of producing so-called "superflares", which are as much as 1,000 times stronger than any flares in the historical record.^[14][15][16] Other research, like models of solar flares^[17] and statistics of extreme solar events reconstructed using cosmogenic isotope data in terrestrial archives, indicate otherwise.^[18] The discrepancy is not yet resolved and may be related to a biased statistic of the stellar population of solar analogs.^[19]

Coronal mass ejections and solar particle events

Further information: Coronal mass ejection and Solar particle event

Events affecting Earth

Proxy evidence

This section contains a list of possible events that are indicated by indirect, or proxy data. The scientific value of such data remains unresolved.^[20][21]

• 12400–12399 BCE Probable Miyake event, which would be the largest known and twice the 774–775 event.^[22]
• 7176 BCE Found in beryllium-10 (and other isotopes) spike in ice cores and corroborated by tree rings.^[23] It unexpectedly appears to have occurred near a Solar minimum^[23] and was as strong as, or probably even slightly stronger than the famous 774–775 CE event.
• c. 5410 BCE^[24]
• 5259 BCE Found in beryllium-10 spike in ice cores and corroborated by tree rings. At least as strong as the 774–775 event.^[25]
• c. 660 BCE^[26][27]
• 774–775 CE^{[28][29][30][31][32]} This extreme solar proton event is the first identified Miyake event. It caused the largest and most rapid rise in carbon-14 levels ever recorded.^[33]
• 993–994 CE^[34][31][35] It caused a carbon-14 spike visible in tree rings which was used to date Viking archaeological remains in L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland to 1021.^[36]
• 1052 CE found in carbon-14 spike^[37]
• 1279 CE found in carbon-14 spike^[37]

Direct measurements and/or visual observations

Date	Event	Significance
Mar 1582	Great magnetic storms of March 1582	Prolonged severe-extreme geomagnetic storm produced aurora to 28.8° magnetic latitude (MLAT) and ≈33.0° invariant latitude (ILAT).[38][39]
Feb 1730		At least as intense as the 1989 event but less intense than the Carrington event[40]
Sep 1770		[41][42][43]
Sep 1859	Carrington Event	The most extreme storm ever documented by most measures; telegraph machines reportedly shocked operators and caused small fires; aurorae visible in tropical areas; first solidly established connection of flares to geomagnetic disturbances. Extreme storming directly preceded this event in late August.
Feb 1872	Chapman–Silverman storm	minimal Dst* ≤ −834 nT[44][45]
Nov 1882	November 1882 geomagnetic storm	Comparable in size to the May 2024 storms.[46]
Oct 1903	Solar storm of Oct-Nov 1903	An extreme storm, estimated at Dst −531 nT arose from a fast CME (mean ≈1500 km/s), occurred during the ascending phase of the minimum of the relatively weak solar cycle 14, which is the most significant storm on record in a solar minimum period. Aurora was conservatively observed to ≈44.1° ILAT, and widespread disruptions and overcharging of telegraph systems occurred.[47][48]
Sep 1909	Geomagnetic storm of September 1909	Dst calculated to have reached −595 nT, comparable to the March 1989 event[49]
May 1921	May 1921 geomagnetic storm	Among most extreme known geomagnetic storms; farthest equatorward (lowest latitude) aurora ever documented;[50] burned out fuses, electrical apparatus, and telephone station; caused fires at signal tower and telegraph station; total communications blackouts lasting several hours.[51] A paper in 2019 estimates a peak Dst of −907±132 nT.[52]
Jan 1938	January 1938 geomagnetic storm, or the Fátima storm
Mar 1940	March 1940 superstorm	Triggered by an X35±1 solar flare.[53] Caused significant interference to United States communication systems.[54]
Sep 1941		[55]
Mar 1946	Geomagnetic storm of March 1946	Est. Dstm of −512 nT[56][57]
Feb 1956		[58][59][60]
Sep 1957	Geomagnetic storm of September 1957	[61][62]
Feb 1958	Geomagnetic storm of February 1958	[61][62]
Jul 1959	Geomagnetic storm of July 1959	[61][63]
May 1967		Blackout of polar surveillance radars during Cold War led U.S. military to scramble for nuclear war until solar origin confirmed[64]
Oct 1968		[65][66]
Aug 1972	August 1972 solar storm	Fastest CME transit time recorded; most extreme solar particle event (SPE) by some measures and the most hazardous to human spaceflight during the Space Age; severe technological disruptions, caused accidental detonation of numerous magnetic-influence sea mines[67]
Mar 1989	March 1989 geomagnetic storm	Most extreme storm of the Space Age by several measures. Outed power grid of province of Quebec.[68] Caused interference to United States power grid.[69]
Aug 1989		[70]
Nov 1991	Geomagnetic storm of November 1991	An intense solar storm with about half the energy output of the March 1989 storm. Aurorae were visible in the US as far south as Texas[71][72]
Apr 2000		[73]
Jul 2000	Bastille Day solar storm	Caused by an X8-class solar flare aimed directly at Earth
Apr 2001		A solar flare from a sunspot region associated with this activity and preceding this period produced the then largest flare detected during the Space Age at about X20 (the first event to saturate spaceborne monitoring instruments, this was exceeded in 2003) but was directed away from Earth.[73][74]
Nov 2001	Geomagnetic storm of November 2001	A fast-moving CME triggered vivid aurorae as far south as Texas, California, and Florida[75]
Oct 2003	2003 Halloween solar storms	Among top few most intense storms of the Space Age; aurora visible as far south as Texas and the Mediterranean countries of Europe. A solar flare with x-ray flux estimated to be around X45 occurred from an associated active region on 4 November but was directed away from Earth.[76][77][78][79][80]
Nov 2003	Solar storms of November 2003	2021 study estimated Dstm of −533 nT[56][61]
Jan 2005		The most intense solar flare in 15 years with sunspot 720 erupting, 5 times from the 15th to 20th.[81][82]
Mar 2015	St. Patrick's Day storm	Largest geomagnetic storm of solar cycle 24, driven by IMF variations[83][84][85][86]
Sep 2017		Triggered by an X13 class solar flare[87][88][89][90]
Feb 2022		A mild solar particle and geomagnetic storm of otherwise little consequence[91] led to the premature reentry and destruction of 40 SpaceX Starlink satellites launched February 3, 2022 due to increased atmospheric drag.[92]
30 April – 12 May 2024	May 2024 solar storms	X1.2(X1.3)-class flares[93] and X4.5-class flare.[94] The flares with a magnitude of 6–7 occurred between 30 April and 4 May 2024. On 5 May the strength of the solar storm reached 5 points, which is considered strong according to the K-index. The rapidly growing sunspot AR3663 became the most active spot of the 25th solar cycle. On 5 May alone, it emitted two X-class (strongest) flares and six M-class (medium) flares. Each of these flares resulted in a short-term but profound disconnection of the Earth's radio signal, resulting in signal loss at frequencies below 30 MHz.[95] An extreme (G5) geomagnetic storm alert was issued by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) – the first in almost 20 years.[96][97] The final storms reaching the highest level of NOAA's G-scale before Solar Cycle 25 occurred in 2005 in May,[98][99][100] August,[101] and September, respectively. With a NOAA rating of G5, a peak Dst of −412 nT, and aurorae seen at far lower latitudes than usual in both hemispheres, this geomagnetic storm was the most powerful to affect Earth since November of 2003.
Oct 2024	October 2024 solar storm	Triggered by an X1.8 solar flare that produced a relatively fast CME.[102][103] The storm reached a peak Dst of −341 nT.[104]

Events not affecting Earth

The above events affected Earth (and its vicinity, known as the magnetosphere), whereas the following events were directed elsewhere in the Solar System and were detected by monitoring spacecraft or other means.

Date(s)	Event	Significance
23 July 2012	July 2012 solar storm	Ultrafast CME directed away from Earth with characteristics that may have made it a Carrington-class storm[105][106][107][108][109]

Soft X-ray solar flares

Further information: Solar flare

Solar flares are intense localized eruptions of electromagnetic radiation in the Sun's atmosphere. They are often classified based on the peak flux of soft X-rays (SXR) measured by the GOES spacecraft in geosynchronous orbit (see Solar flare § Soft X-ray classification).

The following table lists the largest flares in this respect since June 1996, the beginning of solar cycle 23.^[110][111]

No.	SXR Class	Date	Solar cycle	Active region	Time (UTC)			Notes
					Start	Max	End
1	>X28+	2003-11-04	23	10486	19:29	19:53	20:06	Associated with the 2003 Halloween solar storms
2	X20	2001-04-02	23	9393	21:32	21:51	22:03
3	X17.2	2003-10-28	23	10486	09:51	11:10	11:24	Associated with the 2003 Halloween solar storms
4	X17	2005-09-07	23	10808	17:17	17:40	18:03
5	X14.4	2001-04-15	23	9415	13:19	13:50	13:55
6	X10	2003-10-29	23	10486	20:37	20:49	21:01	Associated with the 2003 Halloween solar storms
7	X9.4	1997-11-06	23	8100	11:49	11:55	12:01
8	X9.3	2017-09-06	24	12673	11:53	12:02	12:10
9	X9.0	2006-12-05	23	10930	10:18	10:35	10:45
10	X8.3	2003-11-02	23	10486	17:03	17:25	17:39	Associated with the 2003 Halloween solar storms

See also

• Active region
• Coronal mass ejection
• Earth's magnetic field
• Gamma-ray burst and hypernova
• Health threat from cosmic rays
• Heliosphere
• Miyake event
• Solar cycle
• Space physics
• Space Weather Prediction Center (SWPC)

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Further reading

• Cliver, E.W.; L. Svalgaard (2004). "The 1859 Solar–Terrestrial Disturbance and the Current Limits of Extreme Space Weather Activity" (PDF). Solar Physics. 224 (1–2): 407–22. Bibcode:2004SoPh..224..407C. doi:10.1007/s11207-005-4980-z. S2CID 120093108. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-08-11. Retrieved 2014-05-07.

External links

• The Most Powerful Solar Flares Ever Recorded (NASA's SpaceWeather.com)
• Solar Proton Events Affecting the Earth Environment (1976 - present) (SWPC)
• Archive of the most severe solar storms (Solarstorms.org)
• GOES X-ray Solar Imager Greatest Hits
• Riley, Pete; J. J. Love (2017). "Extreme geomagnetic storms: Probabilistic forecasts and their uncertainties". Space Weather. 15 (1): 53–64. Bibcode:2017SpWea..15...53R. doi:10.1002/2016SW001470. S2CID 125660629.
• Riley, Pete (2012). "On the probability of occurrence of extreme space weather events". Space Weather. 10 (2): S02012. Bibcode:2012SpWea..10.2012R. doi:10.1029/2011SW000734. S2CID 17729668.
• Love, Jeffrey J. (2021). "Extreme-event magnetic storm probabilities derived from rank statistics of historical Dst intensities for solar cycles 14-24". Space Weather. 19 (4). Bibcode:2021SpWea..1902579L. doi:10.1029/2020SW002579.