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Chinese interpretation of the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Guanyin (Chinese: 觀音; pinyin: Guānyīn) is a common Chinese name of the bodhisattva associated with compassion known as Avalokiteśvara (Sanskrit: अवलोकितेश्वर).[1] Guanyin is short for Guanshiyin, which means "[The One Who] Perceives the Sounds of the World".[2] Due to sociogeographical factors, Guanyin can be historically depicted as genderless or adorning an androgynous apprentice.[3] On the 19th day of the sixth lunar month, Guanyin's attainment of Buddhahood is celebrated.[4] Guanyin has been appropriated by other religions, including Taoism and Chinese folk religion.[note 1]
| Guanyin | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Chinese name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Traditional Chinese | 觀音 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Simplified Chinese | 观音 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Full Chinese name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Traditional Chinese | 觀世音 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Simplified Chinese | 观世音 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Literal meaning | "[The One Who] Perceives the Sounds of the World" | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Second alternative Chinese name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Traditional Chinese | 觀自在 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Simplified Chinese | 观自在 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Literal meaning | "Lord who Gazes down on the World" | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Third alternative Chinese name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Traditional Chinese | 觀音媽 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Simplified Chinese | 观音妈 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Burmese name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Burmese | ကွမ်ယင် | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| IPA | [kwàɴ jɪ̀ɴ] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Tibetan name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Tibetan | སྤྱན་རས་གཟིགས | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Vietnamese name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Vietnamese alphabet | Quan Âm (Quán Âm) Quán Thế Âm (Quan Thế Âm) Quán Tự Tại | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Chữ Hán | 觀音 觀世音 觀自在 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Thai name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Thai | กวนอิม, พระอวโลกิเตศวรโพธิสัตว์ | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| RTGS | Kuan Im, Phra Avalokitesuan | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Korean name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Hangul | 관음, 관세음, 관자재 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Hanja | 觀音, 觀世音, 觀自在 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Mongolian name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Mongolian script | ᠨᠢᠳᠦ ᠪᠡᠷ ᠦᠵᠡᠭᠴᠢ | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Japanese name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Kanji | 観音, 観世音, 観自在 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Hiragana | かんのん, かんぜおん, かんじざい | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Indonesian name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Indonesian | Kwan Im, Kwan She Im, Awalokiteswara | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Filipino name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Tagalog | Kuan im ma (ᜃᜓᜀᜈ᜔ᜁᜋ᜔ᜋ) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Sanskrit name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Sanskrit | अवलोकितेश्वर (Avalokiteśvara) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Khmer name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Khmer | អវលោកិតេស្វរៈ (Avalokitesvarak), អវលោកេស្វរៈ (Avalokesvarak), លោកេស្វរៈ (Lokesvarak) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Hmong name | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Hmong | Kabyeeb, Niam-Txiv Kabyeeb, Dabpog, Niam-Txiv Dabpog | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Some Buddhists believe that when one of their adherents departs from this world, they are placed by Guanyin in the heart of a lotus and then sent to the western pure land of Sukhāvatī.[5][by whom?] Guanyin is often referred to as the "most widely beloved Buddhist Divinity"[6] with miraculous powers to assist all those who pray to her, as is mentioned in the Pumen chapter of the Lotus Sutra and the Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra.
Several large temples in East Asia are dedicated to Guanyin, including Shaolin Monastery, Longxing Temple, Puning Temple, Nanhai Guanyin Temple, Dharma Drum Mountain, Kwan Im Thong Hood Cho Temple, Shitennō-ji, Sensō-ji, Kiyomizu-dera, Sanjūsangen-dō, and many others. Guanyin's abode and bodhimaṇḍa in India are recorded as being on Mount Potalaka. With the localization of the belief in Guanyin, each area adopted its own Potalaka. In Chinese Buddhism, Mount Putuo is considered the bodhimaṇḍa of Guanyin. Naksansa is considered to be the Potalaka of Guanyin in Korea. Japan's Potalaka is located at Fudarakusan-ji. Tibet's is the Potala Palace. Vietnam's Potalaka is the Hương Temple.[citation needed]
There are several pilgrimage centers for Guanyin in East Asia. Putuoshan (Mount Putuo) is the main pilgrimage site in China. There is a 33-temple Guanyin pilgrimage in Korea, which includes Naksansa. In Japan, there are several pilgrimages associated with Guanyin. The oldest one of them is the Saigoku Kannon Pilgrimage, a pilgrimage through 33 temples with Guanyin shrines. Guanyin is beloved by most Buddhist traditions in a nondenominational way and is found in most Tibetan temples under the name Chenrézik (Wylie: Spyan ras gzigs). Guanyin is also beloved and worshipped in the temples in Nepal. The Hiranya Varna Mahavihar, located in Patan, is one example. Guanyin is also found in some influential Theravada temples, such as Gangaramaya Temple, Kelaniya, and Natha Devale, near the Temple of the Tooth in Sri Lanka. Guanyin can also be found in Thailand's Temple of the Emerald Buddha, Wat Huay Pla Kang (where the huge statue of her is often mistakenly called the "Big Buddha"), and Myanmar's Shwedagon Pagoda. Statues of Guanyin are a widely depicted subject of Asian art and are found in the Asian art sections of most museums in the world.
_stone_statue_of_the_Thousand-Armed_Guanyin_(千手觀音_Qianshou_Guanyin)_in_Shengshui_Temple_(內江聖水寺_Neijiang_Shengshui-si)_in_Neijiang,_Sichuan,_China_Picture_1.jpg)
Guānyīn is a translation from the Sanskrit Avalokitasvara, the name of the Mahāyāna bodhisattva. Another name for this bodhisattva is Guānzìzài (traditional Chinese: 觀自在; simplified Chinese: 观自在; pinyin: Guānzìzài), from Sanskrit Avalokiteśvara. It was initially thought that early translators mistook Avalokiteśvara as Avalokitasvara and thus mistranslated Avalokiteśvara as Guānyīn, which explained why Xuanzang translated Avalokiteśvara as Guānzìzài. However, the original form was indeed Avalokitasvara which contained morpheme svara ("sound, noise") and was a compound meaning "sound perceiver", literally "he who looks down upon sound" (i.e., the cries of sentient beings who need help).[1][7][8] This is the exact equivalent of the Chinese translation Guānyīn. This etymology was furthered in the Chinese by the tendency of some Chinese translators, notably Kumārajīva, to use the variant Guānshìyīn, literally " One who perceives the world's lamentations"—wherein lok was read as simultaneously meaning both "to look" and "world" (Skt. loka; Ch. 世, shì).[8]
Direct translations from the Sanskrit name Avalokitasvara include:
The name Avalokitasvara was later supplanted by the Avalokiteśvara form containing the ending -īśvara, which does not occur in Sanskrit before the seventh century. The original form Avalokitasvara appears in Sanskrit fragments of the fifth century.[10] The original meaning of the name "Avalokitasvara" fits the Buddhist understanding of the role of a bodhisattva.
While some of those who revered Avalokiteśvara upheld the Buddhist rejection of the doctrine of any creator god,[11] Encyclopædia Britannica does cite Avalokiteśvara as the creator god of the world. This position is taken in the widely used Kāraṇḍavyūha Sūtra with its well-known mantra oṃ maṇi padme hūṃ.[6] In addition, the Lotus Sutra is the first time the Avalokiteśvara is mentioned. Chapter 25 refers to him as Lokeśvara "Lord God of all beings" and Lokanātha "Lord and Protector of all beings" and ascribes extreme attributes of divinity to him.[citation needed]
Direct translations from the Sanskrit name Avalokiteśvara include:
Due to the devotional popularity of Guanyin in Asia, she is known by many names, most of which are simply the localised pronunciations of "Guanyin" or "Guanshiyin":
In these same countries, the variant Guanzizai "Lord of Contemplation" and its equivalents are also used, such as in the Heart Sutra, among other sources.
The Lotus Sūtra (Sanskrit Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra) is generally accepted to be the earliest literature teaching about the doctrines of Avalokiteśvara.[13] These are found in the twenty fifth chapter of the Lotus Sūtra. This chapter is devoted to Avalokitesvara, describing him as a compassionate bodhisattva who hears the cries of sentient beings, and who works tirelessly to help those who call upon his name.[14][15]
The Buddha answered Bodhisattva Akṣayamati, saying: “O son of a virtuous family! If innumerable hundreds of thousands of myriads of koṭis of sentient beings who experience suffering hear of Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara and wholeheartedly chant his name, Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara will immediately perceive their voices and free them from their suffering"
— The Lotus Sutra
The Lotus Sutra describes Avalokiteśvara as a bodhisattva who can take the form of any type of god including Indra or Brahma; any type of Buddha, any type of king or Chakravartin or even any kind of Heavenly Guardian including Vajrapani and Vaisravana as well as any gender male or female, adult or child, human or non-human being, in order to teach the Dharma to sentient beings.[16] Local traditions in China and other East Asian countries have added many distinctive characteristics and legends to Guanyin c.q. Avalokiteśvara. Avalokiteśvara was originally depicted as a male bodhisattva, and therefore wears chest-revealing clothing and may even sport a light moustache. Although this depiction still exists in the Far East, Guanyin is more often depicted as a woman in modern times. Additionally, some people believe that Guanyin is androgynous or perhaps without gender.[17]
A total of 33 different manifestations of Avalokitasvara are described, including female manifestations, all to suit the minds of various beings. Chapter 25 consists of both a prose and a verse section. This earliest source often circulates separately as its own sūtra, called the Avalokitasvara Sūtra (Ch. 觀世音經), and is commonly recited or chanted at Buddhist temples in East Asia.[14] The Lotus Sutra and its thirty-three manifestations of Guanyin, of which seven are female manifestations, is known to have been very popular in Chinese Buddhism as early as in the Sui and Tang dynasties.[18] Additionally, Tan Chung notes that according to the doctrines of the Mahāyāna sūtras themselves, it does not matter whether Guanyin is male, female, or genderless, as the ultimate reality is in emptiness (Skt. śūnyatā).[18]
Representations of the bodhisattva in China prior to the Song dynasty (960–1279) were masculine in appearance. Images which later displayed attributes of both genders are believed to be in accordance with the Lotus Sutra, where Avalokitesvara has the supernatural power of assuming any form required to relieve suffering, and also has the power to grant children. Because this bodhisattva is considered the personification of compassion and kindness, a mother goddess and patron of mothers and seamen, the representation in China was further interpreted in an all-female form around the 12th century. On occasion, Guanyin is also depicted holding an infant in order to further stress the relationship between the bodhisattva, maternity, and birth.[19] In the modern period, Guanyin is most often represented as a beautiful, white-robed woman, a depiction which derives from the earlier Pandaravasini form.
In some Buddhist temples and monasteries, Guanyin's image is occasionally that of a young man dressed in Northern Song Buddhist robes and seated gracefully. He is usually depicted looking or glancing down, symbolising that Guanyin continues to watch over the world.
In China, Guanyin is generally portrayed as a young woman wearing a flowing white robe, and usually also necklaces symbolic of Indian or Chinese royalty. In her left hand is a jar containing pure water, and the right holds a willow branch. The crown usually depicts the image of Amitābha.
There are also regional variations of Guanyin depictions. In Fujian, for example, a popular depiction of Guanyin is as a maiden dressed in Tang hanfu carrying a fish basket. A popular image of Guanyin as both Guanyin of the South Sea and Guanyin with a Fish Basket can be seen in late 16th-century Chinese encyclopedias and in prints that accompany the novel Golden Lotus.
In Chinese art, Guanyin is often depicted either alone, standing atop a dragon, accompanied by a white cockatoo and flanked by two children or two warriors. The two children are her acolytes who came to her when she was meditating at Mount Putuo. The girl is called Longnü and the boy Shancai. The two warriors are the historical general Guan Yu from the late Han dynasty and the bodhisattva Skanda, who appears in the Chinese classical novel Fengshen Yanyi. The Buddhist tradition also displays Guanyin, or other buddhas and bodhisattvas, flanked with the above-mentioned warriors, but as bodhisattvas who protect the temple and the faith itself. In Pure Land Buddhist traditions, Guanyin is often depicted and venerated with the Buddha Amitabha and the Bodhisattva Mahasthamaprapta as part of a trio collective called the "Three Saints of the West" (Chinese: 西方三聖; Pinyin: Xīfāng sānshèng).
| Element | Notes |
|---|---|
| CLOTHING | |
| White robes | Influenced by tantric sutras and mandalas such as the Mandala of the Two Realms which frequently depict Guanyin as being clad in white.[20] |
| Robes sometimes loose or open at chest | Recalling Guanyin's androgynous origins as a male bodhisattva and her ability to change forms. If drawn androgynously, the breasts may, rarely, be wholly exposed, though sometimes jewels may be placed so as to cover the nipples. Very rarely, Guanyin may be shown unambiguously female with breasts fully exposed. |
| Necklace | |
| Crown | Usually contains an image of Buddha Amitabha, her teacher. |
| CARRYING | |
| Vase, often in left hand, often upright though may be shown pouring water. | One of the Eight Symbols of Good Fortune. Contains pure water capable of relieving suffering. Sometimes when poured may form a bubble and surround a young child. |
| Willow branch, often in right hand, sometimes in the vase. | Used to sprinkle divine water. Willow bends without breaking. Influenced by tantric rites where willow branches were used in offering rituals to esoteric forms of Guanyin.[20] |
| Fly whisk | |
| Lotus bloom | Common Buddhist symbol of purity. |
| Rice sheaths | Fertility, providing the necessities for life. |
| Basket, possibly a fish basket | Patroness of fishermen |
| Mālā | |
| ANIMALS AND PEOPLE | |
| Infant | Specifically in the Songzi Guanyin manifestation (See below). Association with maternity. (See also Songzi Niangniang.) May be a representation of her disciple Hui'an / Muzha as an infant. |
| Qilin | Symbol of fertility and a wholly vegetarian creature dedicated strongly to avoiding harm, though will punish the wicked. |
| Dragon | Guanyin may be standing on the dragon which swims in the sea, showing her spiritual powers as well as her status of a patroness of fishermen. The dragon may also be flying and is shown surrounded by clouds. |
| Sea-turtle | Guanyin will be shown standing on the large turtle which swims in the sea as patroness of fishermen. |
| Shancai (Sanskrit: Sudhana) | Translated as "boy skilled in wealth". His presence in Guanyin's iconography was influenced by the Gaṇḍavyūha Sutra within the Avatamsaka Sutra which mention him as seeking out 53 spiritual masters in his quest for enlightenment, with Guanyin being the 28th master. Shancai may sometimes also be shown with bent legs to indicate his former status as crippled. |
| Longnü (Sanskrit: nāgakanyā) | Translated as "dragon girl". Is the daughter of a Dragon King. Her presence in Guanyin's iconography was influenced by tantric sutras celebrating the esoteric Amoghapāśa and Thousand-armed forms of Guanyin, which mention Longnü offering Guanyin a priceless pearl in gratitude for the latter visiting the Dragon King's palace at the bottom of the ocean to teach the inhabitants her salvific dharani.[20] |
| Two warriors | Guan Yu and Weituo (Skanda), two dharmapalas who protect the Buddha-dharma. |
| White parrot | A faithful disciple, see below. |
| OTHER | |
| Standing or seated on a large lotus bloom | A common posture for buddhas and boddhisattvas. The lotus bloom is commonly shown floating on the sea. |
| Halo | To indicate her sacredness or spiritual elevation. |
In Chinese mythology, Guanyin (觀音) is the goddess of mercy and considered to be the physical embodiment of compassion. She is an all-seeing, all-hearing being who is called upon by worshipers in times of uncertainty, despair, and fear. Guanyin is originally based on the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara. Avalokiteśvara's myth spread throughout China during the advent of Buddhism and mixed with local folklore in a process known as syncretism to become the modern day understanding of Guanyin.[21]
_in_the_Drum_Tower_(鼓樓_or_鼓楼)_of_Qita_Temple_(七塔寺)_in_Yingzhou,_Ningbo,_China_Picture_3.jpg)
According to the twenty-fifth chapter of the Lotus Sutra, one of the most popular sacred texts in the Buddhist canon, describes thirty-three specific manifestations that Guanyin can assume to assist other beings seeking salvation. These forms encompass a Buddha, a pratyekabuddha, an arhat, King Brahma, Sakra (Indra), Isvara, Mahesvara (Shiva), a great heavenly general, Vaiśravaṇa, a Cakravartin, a minor king, an elder, a householder, a chief minister, a Brahmin, a bhikkhu, a bhikkhunī, a Upāsaka, a Upāsikā, a wife, a young boy, a young girl, a deva, a nāga, a yaksha, a gandharva, an asura, a garuḍa, a kinnara, a Mahoraga, a human, a non-human and Vajrapani.[22][23]
The Śūraṅgama Sūtra also mentions thirty-two manifestations of Guanyin, which follow closely those in the Lotus Sutra, with the omission of Vajrapani, and the substitution of Vaiśravaṇa (Heavenly King of the North) with the Four Heavenly Kings.[24][23] These manifestations of Guanyin have been nativized in China and Japan to form a traditional list of iconographic forms corresponding to each manifestation.[23]
_-_Mount_Putuo_Guanyin_Dharma_Realm;_Zhejiang,_China.jpg)
Guanyin is also venerated in various other forms. In the Chinese Tiantai and Tangmi and the Japanese Shingon and Tendai traditions, Guanyin can take on six forms, each corresponding to a particular realm of samsara. This grouping originates from the Mohe Zhiguan (Chinese: 摩訶止観; pinyin: Móhē Zhǐguān) written by the Tiantai patriarch Zhiyi (538–597) and are attested to in various other textual sources, such as the Essential Record of The Efficacy of The Three Jewels (Chinese: 三寶感應要略錄; pinyin: Sānbǎo Gǎnyìng Yàolüèlù).[25][26] They are:
In China, the Thousand-Armed manifestation of Guanyin is the most popular among her different esoteric forms.[27] In the Karandavyuha Sutra, the Thousand-Armed and Thousand-Eyed Guanyin (Chinese: 千手千眼觀音; pinyin: Qiānshǒu Qiānyǎn Guānyīn) is described as being superior to all gods and buddhas of the Indian pantheon. The Sutra also states that "it is easier to count all the leaves of every tree of every forest and all the grains of sand in the universe than to count the blessings and power of Avalokiteshvara". This version of Guanyin with a thousand arms depicting the power of all gods also shows various buddhas in the crown depicting the wisdom of all buddhas. In temples and monasteries in China, iconographic depictions of this manifestation of Guanyin is often combined with iconographic depiction of her Eleven-Headed manifestation to form statues with a thousand arms as well as eleven heads. The mantra associated with this manifestation, the Nīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī, is one of the most popular mantras commonly recited in East Asian Buddhism.[27] In Chinese Buddhism, the popularity of the mantra influenced the creation of an esoteric repentance ceremony known as the Ritual of Great Compassion Repentance (Chinese: 大悲懺法會; pinyin: Dàbēi Chànfǎ Huì during the Song dynasty (960–1279) by the Tiantai monk Siming Zhili (Chinese: 四明知禮; pinyin: Sìmíng Zhīlǐ), which is still regularly performed in modern Chinese Buddhist temples in Mainland China, Hong Kong, Taiwan and overseas Chinese communities.[27] One Chinese Buddhist legend from the Complete Tale of Guanyin and the Southern Seas (Chinese: 南海觀音全撰; pinyin: Nánhǎi Guānyīn Quánzhuàn) recounts how Guanyin almost emptied hell by reforming almost all of its denizens until sent out from there by the Ten Kings.[28] Despite strenuous effort, she realised that there were still many unhappy beings yet to be saved. After struggling to comprehend the needs of so many, her head split into eleven pieces. The buddha Amitābha, upon seeing her plight, gave her eleven heads to help her hear the cries of those who are suffering. Upon hearing these cries and comprehending them, Avalokiteśvara attempted to reach out to all those who needed aid, but found that her two arms shattered into pieces. Once more, Amitābha came to her aid and appointed her a thousand arms to let her reach out to those in need. Many Himalayan versions of the tale include eight arms with which Avalokitesvara skillfully upholds the dharma, each possessing its own particular implement, while more Chinese-specific versions give varying accounts of this number. In Japan, statues of this nature can be found at the Sanjūsangen-dō temple of Kyoto.
In both Chinese Buddhism and Japanese Buddhism, Hayagriva Guanyin (lit. "Horse Headed Guanyin")[29] is venerated as a guardian protector of travel and transportation, especially for cars. His statue is placed at the entrance and exits of some Chinese Buddhist temples to bless visitors. In certain Chinese Buddhist temples, visitors are also allowed to have their license plates enshrined in front of an image of this deity to invoke his protection over their vehicle.[30] He is also counted as one of the 500 Arhats, where he is known as Mǎtóu Zūnzhě 馬頭尊者 (lit. "The Venerable Horse Head"). In Taoism, Hayagriva Guanyin was syncretized and incorporated within the Taoist pantheon as the god Mǎ Wáng 馬王 (lit. Horse King), who is associated with fire. In this form, he is usually portrayed with six arms and a third eye on the forehead.[31]
Guanyin's Cundī manifestation is an esoteric form of Guanyin that is venerated widely in China and Japan. The first textual source of Cundī and the Cundī Dhāraṇī is the Kāraṇḍavyūhasūtra, a sūtra centered around the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara that introduced the popular mantra oṃ maṇipadme hūṃ. This text is first dated to around the late 4th century CE to the early 5th century CE.[32] Cundī and the Cundī Dhāraṇī are also featured in the Cundī Dhāraṇī Sūtra, which was translated three times from Sanskrit into Chinese in the late 7th century and early 8th century by the Indian esoteric masters Divākara (685 CE), Vajrabodhi (723 CE), and Amoghavajra (8th century).[32] In iconographic form, she is depicted with eighteen arms, all wielding different implements and weaponry that symbolize skillful means of the Dharma, sitting on a lotus flower. This manifestation is also referred to as the "Mother of the Seventy Million [Buddhas]" (Chinese: 七俱胝佛母; pinyin: Qījùzhī fómǔ). Her mantra, the Mahācundi Dhāraṇī (Chinese: 準提神咒; pinyin: Zhǔntí Shénzhòu), is one of the Ten Small Mantras (Chinese: 十小咒; pinyin: Shí xiǎo zhòu), which are a collection of dharanis that are commonly recited in Chinese Buddhist temples during morning liturgical services specifically.[33][34]
_-_Jade_Buddha_Temple;_Shanghai,_China.jpg)
Guanyin's Cintāmaṇicakra manifestation is also widely venerated in China and Japan. In iconographic form, this manifestation is often portrayed as having six arms, with his first right hand touches the cheek in a pensive mudra, his second right hand holds a wish granting jewel (cintamani), his third right hand holds prayer beads, his first left hand holds Mount Meru, his second left hand holds a lotus flower and the third left hand holds a Dharma wheel (cakra).[35] Her mantra, the Cintāmaṇicakra Dharani (Chinese: 如意寶輪王陀羅尼; pinyin: Rúyì Bǎolún Wáng Tuóluóní), is also one of the Ten Small Mantras.[33][34]
In China, it is said that fishermen used to pray to her to ensure safe voyages. The titles Guanyin of the Southern Ocean (南海觀音) and "Guanyin (of/on) the Island" stem from this tradition.
Another story from the Precious Scroll of Fragrant Mountain (香山寶卷) describes an incarnation of Guanyin as the daughter of a cruel king Miaozhuang Wang who wanted her to marry a wealthy but uncaring man. The story is usually ascribed to the research of the Buddhist monk Jiang Zhiqi during the 11th century. The story is likely to have its origin in Taoism. When Jiang penned the work, he believed that the Guanyin we know today was actually a princess called Miaoshan (妙善), who had a religious following on Fragrant Mountain.[36] Despite this there are many variants of the story in Chinese mythology.
According to the story, after the king asked his daughter Miaoshan to marry the wealthy man, she told him that she would obey his command, so long as the marriage eased three misfortunes.
The king asked his daughter what were the three misfortunes that the marriage should ease. Miaoshan explained that the first misfortune the marriage should ease was the suffering people endure as they age. The second misfortune it should ease was the suffering people endure when they fall ill. The third misfortune it should ease was the suffering caused by death. If the marriage could not ease any of the above, then she would rather retire to a life of religion forever.
When her father asked who could ease all the above, Miaoshan pointed out that a doctor was able to do all of these. Her father grew angry as he wanted her to marry a person of power and wealth, not a healer. He forced her into hard labour and reduced her food and drink but this did not cause her to yield.
Every day she begged to be able to enter a temple and become a nun instead of marrying. Her father eventually allowed her to work in the temple, but asked the monks to give her the toughest chores in order to discourage her. The monks forced Miaoshan to work all day and all night while others slept in order to finish her work. However, she was such a good person that the animals living around the temple began to help her with her chores. Her father, seeing this, became so frustrated that he attempted to burn down the temple. Miaoshan put out the fire with her bare hands and suffered no burns. Now struck with fear, her father ordered her to be put to death.
In one version of this legend, when Guanyin was executed, a supernatural tiger took her to one of the more hell-like realms of the dead. However, instead of being punished like the other spirits of the dead, Guanyin played music, and flowers blossomed around her. This completely surprised the hell guardian. The story says that Guanyin, by merely being in that Naraka (hell), turned it into a paradise. A variant of the legend says that Miaoshan allowed herself to die at the hand of the executioner. According to this legend, as the executioner tried to carry out her father's orders, his axe shattered into a thousand pieces. He then tried a sword which likewise shattered. He tried to shoot Miaoshan down with arrows but they all veered off.
Finally in desperation he used his hands. Miaoshan, realising the fate that the executioner would meet at her father's hand should she fail to let herself die, forgave the executioner for attempting to kill her. It is said that she voluntarily took on the massive karmic guilt the executioner generated for killing her, thus leaving him guiltless. It is because of this that she descended into the Hell-like realms. While there, she witnessed first-hand the suffering and horrors that the beings there must endure, and was overwhelmed with grief. Filled with compassion, she released all the good karma she had accumulated through her many lifetimes, thus freeing many suffering souls back into Heaven and Earth. In the process, that Hell-like realm became a paradise. It is said that Yama, the ruler of hell, sent her back to Earth to prevent the utter destruction of his realm, and that upon her return she appeared on Fragrant Mountain.
Another tale says that Miaoshan never died, but was in fact transported by a supernatural tiger,[37] believed to be the Deity of the Mountain,[38] to Fragrant Mountain.
The legend of Miaoshan usually ends with Miaozhuang Wang, Miaoshan's father, falling ill with jaundice. No physician was able to cure him. Then a monk appeared saying that the jaundice could be cured by making a medicine out of the arm and eye of one without anger. The monk further suggested that such a person could be found on Fragrant Mountain. When asked, Miaoshan willingly offered up her eyes and arms. Miaozhuang Wang was cured of his illness and went to the Fragrant Mountain to give thanks to the person. When he discovered that his own daughter had made the sacrifice, he begged for forgiveness. The story concludes with Miaoshan being transformed into the Thousand Armed Guanyin, and the king, queen and her two sisters building a temple on the mountain for her. She began her journey to a pure land and was about to cross over into heaven when she heard a cry of suffering from the world below. She turned around and saw the massive suffering endured by the people of the world. Filled with compassion, she returned to Earth, vowing never to leave till such time as all suffering has ended.
After her return to Earth, Guanyin was said to have stayed for a few years on the island of Mount Putuo where she practised meditation and helped the sailors and fishermen who got stranded. Guanyin is frequently worshipped as patron of sailors and fishermen due to this. She is said to frequently becalm the sea when boats are threatened with rocks.[39] After some decades Guanyin returned to Fragrant Mountain to continue her meditation.
Legend has it that Shancai (also called Sudhana in Sanskrit) was a disabled boy from India who was very interested in studying the dharma. When he heard that there was a Buddhist teacher on the rocky island of Putuo, he quickly journeyed there to learn. Upon arriving at the island, he managed to find Guanyin despite his severe disability.
Guanyin, after having a discussion with Shancai, decided to test the boy's resolve to fully study the Buddhist teachings. She conjured the illusion of three sword-wielding pirates running up the hill to attack her. Guanyin took off and dashed to the edge of a cliff, the three illusions still chasing her. Shancai, seeing that his teacher was in danger, hobbled uphill. Guanyin then jumped over the edge of the cliff, and soon after this the three bandits followed. Shancai, still wanting to save his teacher, managed to crawl his way over the cliff edge.
Shancai fell down the cliff but was halted in midair by Guanyin, who now asked him to walk. Shancai found that he could walk normally and that he was no longer crippled. When he looked into a pool of water he also discovered that he now had a very handsome face. From that day forth, Guanyin taught Shancai the entire dharma.
Many years after Shancai became a disciple of Guanyin, a distressing event happened in the South China Sea. The third son of one of the Dragon Kings was caught by a fisherman while swimming in the form of a fish. Being stuck on land, he was unable to transform back into his dragon form. His father, despite being a mighty Dragon King, was unable to do anything while his son was on land. Distressed, the son called out to all of Heaven and Earth.
Hearing this cry, Guanyin quickly sent Shancai to recover the fish and gave him all the money she had. The fish at this point was about to be sold in the market. It was causing quite a stir as it was alive hours after being caught. This drew a much larger crowd than usual at the market. Many people decided that this prodigious situation meant that eating the fish would grant them immortality, and so all present wanted to buy the fish. Soon a bidding war started, and Shancai was easily outbid.
Shancai begged the fish seller to spare the life of the fish. The crowd, now angry at someone so daring, was about to pry him away from the fish when Guanyin projected her voice from far away, saying "A life should definitely belong to one who tries to save it, not one who tries to take it."
The crowd, realising their shameful actions and desire, dispersed. Shancai brought the fish back to Guanyin, who promptly returned it to the sea. There the fish transformed back to a dragon and returned home. Paintings of Guanyin today sometimes portray her holding a fish basket, which represents the aforementioned tale.
As a reward for Guanyin saving his son, the Dragon King sent his granddaughter, a girl called Longnü ("dragon girl"), to present Guanyin with the Pearl of Light. The Pearl of Light was a precious jewel owned by the Dragon King that constantly shone. Longnü, overwhelmed by the presence of Guanyin, asked to be her disciple so that she might study the dharma. Guanyin accepted her offer with just one request: that Longnü be the new owner of the Pearl of Light.
In popular iconography, Longnü and Shancai are often seen alongside Guanyin as two children. Longnü is seen either holding a bowl or an ingot, which represents the Pearl of Light, whereas Shancai is seen with palms joined and knees slightly bent to show that he was once crippled.
In a story first dating to the Ming dynasty, a parrot becomes a disciple of Guanyin. Set during the prosperous Tang dynasty, the story focuses on a family of white parrots who nest in a tree. One young parrot in the family is especially intelligent, and can recite sutras, chant the name of Amitābha, and in some versions is even able to compose poetry. One day, the father parrot is killed by hunters. When the mother parrot goes to see what happened, she is blinded by the hunters. When the intelligent young parrot goes to find cherries (sometimes specified as lychees) to feed its mother, it is captured by the same hunters. By the time it escapes, its mother has died. After it has mourned the death of its mother and provided her with a proper funeral, the Earth God suggests that the parrot worship Guanyin. Guanyin, moved by the filial piety of the parrot, allows its parents to be reborn in the Pure Land.[40] This story was told in the Tale of the Filial Parrot (Chinese: 鶯哥孝義傳; pinyin: Yīnggē xiàoyì zhuàn) and then retold in the later Precious Scroll of the Parrot (Chinese: 鸚哥寶卷; pinyin: Yīnggē bǎojuàn).
In popular iconography, the parrot is coloured white and usually seen hovering to the right side of Guanyin with either a pearl or a prayer bead clasped in its beak. The parrot became a symbol of filial piety.[41]
Chen Jinggu is said to be related to Guanyin via the following story.[42] One day in Quanzhou, Fujian, the people needed money to build a bridge. Guanyin turned into an attractive lady and said she would marry any man who could hit her with silver. Many tried, and Guanyin was able to accumulate a lot of silver ingots through this process. Eventually one of the Eight Immortals, Lü Dongbin, helped a merchant hit her hair with some silver.
The story continues with how Chen Jinggu grew up, studied at Lüshan, and eventually saved Northern Fujian from drought while defeating the white demon snake, but at the cost of sacrificing her own child. It is said that she died of either miscarriage or hemorrhage from the self-abortion.[42][43][44]
Parallels have also been argued between the tale of Chen Jinggu and another Fujian legend, the tale of Li Ji slays the Giant Serpent.[43][44]
Quan Âm Thị Kính (觀音氏敬) is a Vietnamese verse recounting the life of a woman, Thị Kính. She was accused falsely of having intended to kill her husband, and when she disguised herself as a man to lead a religious life in a Buddhist temple, she was again falsely blamed for having committed sexual intercourse with a girl named Thị Mầu. She was accused of impregnating her, which was strictly forbidden by Buddhist law. However, thanks to her endurance of all indignities and her spirit of self-sacrifice, she could enter into Nirvana and became Goddess of Mercy (Phật Bà Quan Âm).[45] P. Q. Phan's 2014 opera The Tale of Lady Thị Kính is based on this story.[46]
In China, various native indigenous forms and aspects of Guanyin have been developed, along with associated legends, and portrayed in religious iconography. Aside from religious veneration, many of these manifestations also tended to appear in medieval and modern Chinese Buddhist miracle tales, fantasy fiction novels and plays.[20] Some local forms include:
Similarly in Japan, several local manifestations of Guanyin, known there primarily as Kannon or, reflecting an older pronunciation, Kwannon, have also been developed natively, supplanting some Japanese deities, with some having been developed as late as the 20th century. Some local forms include:[49]
In Tibet, Guanyin is revered under the name Chenrezig. Unlike much of other East Asia Buddhism where Guanyin is usually portrayed as female or androgynous, Chenrezig is revered in male form. While similarities of the female form of Guanyin with the female buddha or boddhisattva Tara are noted—particularly the aspect of Tara called Green Tara—Guanyin is rarely identified with Tara.[50][51] Through Guanyin's identity as Avalokitesvara, she is a part of the padmakula (Lotus family) of buddhas. The buddha of the Lotus family is Amitābha, whose consort is Pāṇḍaravāsinī. Guanyin's female form is sometimes said to have been inspired by Pāṇḍaravāsinī.
Due to her symbolization of compassion, in East Asia, Guanyin is associated with vegetarianism. Buddhist cuisine is generally decorated with her image and she appears in most Buddhist vegetarian pamphlets and magazines.[52][53] Also, there is a type of soil named after her that is known for its beneficial properties, such as preventing nausea and diarrhea. Chaoqi (Chinese: 炒祺/炒粸) is a traditional Chinese snack, consisting of dough pieces cooked in Guanyin Soil. The ingredients for Chaoqi dough are flour, eggs, sugar, and salt. Traditionally, it is flavored with five-spice powder, pepper leaf, and sesame, but it can also be flavored with brown sugar and jujube. The snack was traditionally taken on long journeys, as the soil helps preserve the dough.
In East Asian Buddhism, Guanyin is the bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara. Among the Chinese, Avalokiteśvara is almost exclusively called Guanshiyin Pusa (觀世音菩薩). The Chinese translation of many Buddhist sutras has in fact replaced the Chinese transliteration of Avalokitesvara with Guanshiyin (觀世音). Some Taoist scriptures give her the title of Guanyin Dashi, sometimes informally Guanyin Fozu.
In Chinese culture, the popular belief and worship of Guanyin as a goddess by the populace is generally not viewed to be in conflict with the bodhisattva Avalokitesvara's nature. In fact the widespread worship of Guanyin as a "Goddess of Mercy and Compassion" is seen by Buddhists as the boundless salvific nature of bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara at work (in Buddhism, this is referred to as Guanyin's "skillful means", or upaya). The Buddhist canon states that bodhisattvas can assume whatsoever gender and form is needed to liberate beings from ignorance and dukkha. With specific reference to Avalokitesvara, he is stated both in the Lotus Sutra (Chapter 25 "Perceiver of the World's Sounds" or "Universal Gateway"), and the Śūraṅgama Sūtra to have appeared before as a woman or a goddess to save beings from suffering and ignorance. Some Buddhist schools refer to Guanyin both as male and female interchangeably.
Guanyin is immensely popular among Chinese Buddhists, especially those from devotional schools. She is generally seen as a source of unconditional love and, more importantly, as a saviour. In her bodhisattva vow, Guanyin promises to answer the cries and pleas of all sentient beings and to liberate them from their own karmic woes. Based on the Lotus Sutra and the Shurangama sutra, Avalokitesvara is generally seen as a saviour, both spiritually and physically. The sutras state that through his saving grace even those who have no chance of being enlightened can be enlightened, and those deep in negative karma can still find salvation through his compassion. In Mahayana Buddhism, gender is no obstacle to attaining enlightenment (or nirvana). The Buddhist concept of non-duality applies here. The Vimalakirti Sutra's "Goddess" chapter clearly illustrates an enlightened being who is also a female and deity. In the Lotus Sutra, a maiden became enlightened in a very short time span. The view that Avalokiteśvara is also the goddess Guanyin does not seem contradictory to Buddhist beliefs. Guanyin has been a buddha called the "Tathāgata of Brightness of Correct Dharma" (正法明如來).[54]
_in_Huayan_Temple_(華嚴寺_or_华严寺);_Datong,_Shanxi,_China.jpg)
In Pure Land Buddhism, Guanyin is described as the "Barque of Salvation". Along with Amitābha and the bodhisattva Mahasthamaprapta, she temporarily liberates beings out of the Wheel of Samsara into the Pure Land, where they will have the chance to accrue the necessary merit so as to be a Buddha in one lifetime. In Chinese Buddhist iconography, Guanyin is often depicted as meditating or sitting alongside one of the Buddhas and usually accompanied by another bodhisattva. The buddha and bodhisattva that are portrayed together with Guanyin usually follow whichever school of Buddhism they represent. In Pure Land Buddhism, for example, Guanyin is frequently depicted on the left of Amitābha, while on the buddha's right is Mahasthamaprapta. Temples that revere the bodhisattva Ksitigarbha usually depict him meditating beside Amitābha and Guanyin.
Even among Chinese Buddhist schools that are non-devotional, Guanyin is still highly venerated. Instead of being seen as an active external force of unconditional love and salvation, the personage of Guanyin is highly revered as the principle of compassion, mercy and love. The act, thought and feeling of compassion and love is viewed as Guanyin. A merciful, compassionate, loving individual is said to be Guanyin. A meditative or contemplative state of being at peace with oneself and others is seen as Guanyin.
In the Mahayana canon, the Heart Sutra is ascribed entirely to Guanyin. This is unique, since most Mahayana Sutras are usually ascribed to Gautama Buddha and the teachings, deeds or vows of the bodhisattvas are described by Shakyamuni Buddha. In the Heart Sutra, Guanyin describes to the arhat Sariputta the nature of reality and the essence of the Buddhist teachings. The famous Buddhist saying "Form is emptiness, emptiness is form" (色即是空，空即是色) comes from this sutra.
Guanyin is an extremely popular goddess in Chinese folk religion, Chinese Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism. She is worshiped in many Chinese communities throughout East and Southeast Asia.[55][56][57][58] In Taoism, records claim Guanyin was a Chinese woman who became an immortal, Cihang Zhenren in Shang dynasty or Xingyin (姓音).
Guanyin is revered in the general Chinese population due to her unconditional love and compassion. She is generally regarded by many as the protector of women and children, perhaps due to iconographic confusion with images of Hariti. By this association, she is also seen as a fertility goddess capable of granting children to couples. An old Chinese superstition involves a woman who, wishing to have a child, offers a shoe to Guanyin. In Chinese culture, a borrowed shoe sometimes is used when a child is expected. After the child is born, the shoe is returned to its owner along with a new pair as a thank you gift.[59]
Guanyin is also seen as the champion of the unfortunate, the sick, the weak, the needy, the disabled, the poor, and those in trouble. Some coastal and river areas of China regard her as the protector of fishermen, sailors, and generally people who are out at sea, thus many have also come to believe that Mazu, the goddess of the sea, is a manifestation of Guanyin. Due to her association with the legend of the Great Flood, where she sent down a dog holding rice grains in its tail after the flood, she is worshiped as an agrarian and agriculture goddess. In some quarters, especially among business people and traders, she is looked upon as a goddess of fortune. In recent years there have been claims of her being the protector of air travelers.
Guanyin is also a ubiquitous figure found within new religious movements of Asia:
Some Buddhist and Christian observers have commented on the similarity between Guanyin and Mary, mother of Jesus. This can be attributed to the representation of Guanyin holding a child in Chinese art and sculpture; it is believed that Guanyin is the patron saint of mothers and grants parents filial children, this apparition is popularly known as the "Child-Sending Guanyin" (送子觀音). One example of this comparison can be found in Tzu Chi, a Taiwanese Buddhist humanitarian organisation, which noticed the similarity between this form of Guanyin and the Virgin Mary. The organisation commissioned a portrait of Guanyin holding a baby, closely resembling the typical Catholic Madonna and Child painting. Copies of this portrait are now displayed prominently in Tzu Chi affiliated medical centres, especially since Tzu Chi's founder is a Buddhist master and her supporters come from various religious backgrounds.
During the Edo period in Japan, when Christianity was banned and punishable by death, some underground Christian groups venerated Jesus and the Virgin Mary by disguising them as statues of Kannon holding a child; such statues are known as Maria Kannon. Many had a cross hidden in an inconspicuous location. It is suggested[by whom?] the similarity comes from the conquest and colonization of the Philippines by Spain during the 16th century, when Asian cultures influenced engravings of the Virgin Mary, as evidenced, for example, in an ivory carving of the Virgin Mary by a Chinese carver.[62]
The statue of Guanyin (Gwanse-eum) in Gilsangsa in Seoul, South Korea was sculpted by Catholic sculptor Choi Jong-tae, who modeled the statue after the Virgin Mary in hopes of fostering religious reconciliation in Korean society.[63][64]
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The 2013 Buddhist film Avalokitesvara, tells the origins of Mount Putuo, the famous pilgrimage site for Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva in China. The motion picture was filmed onsite on Mount Putuo and featured several segments where monks chant the Heart Sutra in Chinese and Sanskrit. Egaku, the protagonist of the film, also chants the Heart Sutra in Japanese.[65]
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