Karlodinium veneficum

Karlodinium veneficum is a species of dinoflagellates belonging to the family Kareniaceae.^[1] This species is predominantly inhabiting aquatic environments, particularly in temperate coastal regions.

Karlodinium veneficum
Scanning electron microscope image of Karlodinium veneficum (right) feeding on Rhodomonas
Scientific classification
Domain:	Eukaryota
Clade:	Diaphoretickes
Clade:	SAR
Clade:	Alveolata
Phylum:	Myzozoa
Superclass:	Dinoflagellata
Class:	Dinophyceae
Order:	Gymnodiniales
Family:	Kareniaceae
Genus:	Karlodinium
Species:	K. veneficum
Binomial name
Karlodinium veneficum (D.Ballantine) J.Larsen 2000

Karlodinium veneficum genome sizes have been reported as ~20 pg/cell^[2] and 4 pg/cell.^[3]

This phytoplankton has the capacity to produce harmfull toxins, specifically karlotoxins, which have been associated with detrimental phenomena such as harmful algae blooms.^[4] These blooms have been documented globally, spanning regions from South Africa^[5] and Europe^[6] to Australia, North America, and China. The repercussions of K. veneficum blooms include not only ecological concerns, also substantial economic and environmental impacts.

The species-specific toxins produced by K. veneficum, known as karlotoxins, belong to the amphidinol-like compound class, exhibiting hemolytic, ichthyotoxic, and cytotoxic properties. The toxins generated by this dinoflagellate have been implicated in massive fish kills during bloom events.^[7]

K. veneficum is not confined to solitary blooms but frequently coexists with other phytoplankton species, such as Prorocentrum donghaiense and Karenia mikimotoi.^[8] K. veneficum often proliferates into dense blooms following the decline of P. donghaiense.^[9]

References

1. "Karlodinium veneficum (D.Ballantine) J.Larsen 2000 :: Algaebase". www.algaebase.org. Retrieved 29 October 2022.
2. Figueroa, Rosa Isabel; Garcés, E.; Bravo, I. (2010). "The use of flow cytometry for species identification and life-cycle studies in dinoflagellates". Deep Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography. 57 (3–4). Elsevier BV: 301–307. Bibcode:2010DSRII..57..301F. doi:10.1016/j.dsr2.2009.09.008. ISSN 0967-0645.
3. Liu, Yuyang; Hu, Zhangxi; Deng, Yunyan; Shang, Lixia; Gobler, Christopher J.; Tang, Ying Zhong (2021). "Dependence of genome size and copy number of rRNA gene on cell volume in dinoflagellates". Harmful Algae. 109. Elsevier BV: 102108. doi:10.1016/j.hal.2021.102108. ISSN 1568-9883. PMID 34815026. S2CID 244318552.
4. Deeds, Jonathan R; Terlizzi, Daniel E; Adolf, Jason E; Stoecker, Diane K; Place, Allen R (1 June 2002). "Toxic activity from cultures of Karlodinium micrum (=Gyrodinium galatheanum) (Dinophyceae)—a dinoflagellate associated with fish mortalities in an estuarine aquaculture facility". Harmful Algae. 1 (2): 169–189. doi:10.1016/S1568-9883(02)00027-6. ISSN 1568-9883.
5. "Gymnodinium galatheanum Braarud :: AlgaeBase". www.algaebase.org. Retrieved 2 December 2023.
6. Carreto, J. I. (1 October 2001). "Pigment profile of the ichthyotoxic dinoflagellate Gymnodinium sp. from a massive bloom in southern Chile". Journal of Plankton Research. 23 (10): 1171–1175. doi:10.1093/plankt/23.10.1171. ISSN 1464-3774.
7. Van Wagoner, Ryan M.; Deeds, Jonathan R.; Satake, Masayuki; Ribeiro, Anthony A.; Place, Allen R.; Wright, Jeffrey L.C. (November 2008). "Isolation and characterization of karlotoxin 1, a new amphipathic toxin from Karlodinium veneficum". Tetrahedron Letters. 49 (45): 6457–6461. doi:10.1016/j.tetlet.2008.08.103. PMC 2928153. PMID 20798789.
8. Zhou, Chengxu; Place, Allen R.; Yan, Xiaojun; Xu, Jilin; Luo, Qijun; William, Ernest; Jiang, Ying (November 2015). "Interactions between Karlodinium veneficum and Prorocentrum donghaiense from the East China Sea". Harmful Algae. 49: 50–57. doi:10.1016/j.hal.2015.08.004. PMC 6512812. PMID 31093028.
9. Wang, Rui; Wu, Jiajun; Zhou, Shiwen; Cao, Ruobing; Chan, Leo Lai (1 September 2020). "A preliminary study on the allelopathy and toxicity of the dinoflagellate Karlodinium veneficum". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 158: 111400. Bibcode:2020MarPB.15811400W. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2020.111400. ISSN 0025-326X. S2CID 220979297.