Shandong
Province of China From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Shandong[lower-alpha 1] is a coastal province in East China.[8] Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history since the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River. It has served as a pivotal cultural and religious center for Taoism, Chinese Buddhism and Confucianism. Shandong's Mount Tai is the most revered mountain of Taoism and a site with one of the longest histories of continuous religious worship in the world.[9] The Buddhist temples in the mountains south of the provincial capital of Jinan were once among the foremost Buddhist sites in China.[10] The city of Qufu was the birthplace of Confucius, and later became the center of Confucianism.[11]
Shandong
山东 | |
|---|---|
| Province of Shandong | |
| Name transcription(s) | |
| • Chinese | 山东省 Shāndōng shěng |
| • Abbreviation | SD / 鲁 Lǔ |
.svg) Location of Shandong within China | |
| Coordinates: 36°24′N 118°24′E | |
| Country | China |
| Named for |
|
| Capital | Jinan |
| Largest city | Linyi |
| Divisions | 16 prefectures, 140 counties, 1941 townships |
| Government | |
| • Type | Province |
| • Body | Shandong Provincial People's Congress |
| • CCP Secretary | Lin Wu[1] |
| • Congress chairman | Lin Wu |
| • Governor | Zhou Naixiang |
| • CPPCC chairman | Ge Huijun |
| • National People's Congress Representation | 174 deputies |
| Area | |
| • Total | 157,100 km2 (60,700 sq mi) |
| • Rank | 20th |
| Highest elevation | 1,545 m (5,069 ft) |
| Population (2020)[3] | |
| • Total | 101,527,453 |
| • Rank | 2nd |
| • Density | 650/km2 (1,700/sq mi) |
| • Rank | 5th |
| Demonym | Shandongese |
| Demographics | |
| • Ethnic composition | |
| • Languages and dialects | Jiaoliao Mandarin, Jilu Mandarin, Zhongyuan Mandarin |
| GDP (2023)[4] | |
| • Total | CN¥9.21 trillion (3rd) (US$1.31 trillion) |
| • Per capita | CN¥90,772 (11th) (US$12,881) |
| ISO 3166 code | CN-SD |
| HDI (2019) |  0.759[5]high · 14th |
| Website | www |
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| Shandong | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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.svg) "Shandong" in simplified (top) and traditional (bottom) Chinese characters | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Simplified Chinese | 山东 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Traditional Chinese | 山東 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Literal meaning | East of the Taihang Mountains | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Shandong's location at the intersection of ancient and modern north–south and east–west trading routes has helped establish it as an economic center. After a period of political instability and economic hardship beginning in the late 19th century, Shandong has experienced rapid growth in recent decades. Home to over 100 million inhabitants, Shandong is the world's sixth-most populous subnational entity, and China's second-most populous province.[12] The economy of Shandong is China's third-largest provincial economy with a GDP of CN¥8.3 trillion (US$1.3 trillion) in 2021, equivalent to the GDP of Mexico.[13][14] If considered among sovereign states, Shandong would rank as the 15th-largest economy and the 15th-most populous as of 2021[update].[15] Its GDP per capita is around the national average.
Shandong is one of China's leading provinces in education and research. It has 153 higher education institutions, ranking second in East China after Jiangsu and fourth among all Chinese first-level divisions after Jiangsu, Guangdong and Henan.[16] As of 2023[update], the Nature Index ranked Jinan ranked 32nd and Qingdao 43rd in the top 50 cities in the world by scientific research output.[17]
Shandong's name literally means 'east of the mountains', from 'mountain' (山) and 'east' (东). The name refers to the province's location to the east of the Taihang Mountains.[18][19] A common nickname for Shandong is Qilu (齐鲁; 齊魯), from the states of Qi and Lu that existed in the area during the Spring and Autumn period. Whereas Qi was a major political power, Lu played only a minor political role but became renowned as the home of Confucius, and its cultural influence came to eclipse that of Qi. The cultural legacy of Lu is reflected in the province's official abbreviation of Lǔ (鲁; 魯).[20]
Ancient history
With its location on the eastern edge of the North China Plain, Shandong was home to a succession of Neolithic cultures for millennia, including the Houli (c. 6500–5500 BC), Beixin (c. 5300–4100 BC), Dawenkou (c. 4100–2600 BC), Longshan (c. 3000–2000 BC), and Yueshi cultures (c. 1900–1500 BC).
The Shang and Zhou dynasties exerted varying degrees of control over western Shandong, while eastern Shandong was inhabited by Dongyi peoples, who were considered barbarians by the inhabitants of the Central Plain. Following the annexation of Lai by the state of Qi in 567 BC, the Dongyi gradually became sinicized.
During the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, power was accumulated by regional states; Shandong was home to the state of Qi based in Linzi, and the state of Lu based in Qufu. Lu is famous for being the home of Confucius; however, it was comparatively small, eventually being annexed by the neighboring state of Chu to its south. Meanwhile, Qi was a significant power throughout the entire period, and ruled cities including Linzi, Jimo (near modern Qingdao) and Ju.
Imperial history
The Qin dynasty conquered Qi and founded the first centralized Chinese state in 221 BC. The Han dynasty that followed created several commanderies supervised by two regions (刺史部) in what is now modern Shandong: Qingzhou (青州) in the north and Yanzhou (兗州) in the south. During the Three Kingdoms period, Shandong was part of the northern kingdom of Cao Wei, which ruled over northern China.
After the Three Kingdoms period, a brief period of unity under the Western Jin dynasty gave way to invasions by nomadic peoples from the north. Northern China, including Shandong, was overrun. Over the next century or so, Shandong changed hands several times, falling to the Later Zhao, then Former Yan, then Former Qin, then Later Yan, then Southern Yan, then the Liu Song dynasty, and finally the Northern Wei dynasty, the first of the Northern dynasties during the Northern and Southern dynasties period. Shandong stayed with the Northern dynasties for the rest of this period.
In 412 AD, the Chinese Buddhist monk Faxian landed at Laoshan, on the southern edge of the Shandong peninsula, and proceeded to Qingzhou to edit and translate the scriptures he had brought back from India.
The Sui dynasty reestablished unity in 589, and the Tang dynasty (618–907) presided over the next golden age of China. For the earlier part of this period, Shandong was ruled as part of Henan Circuit, one of the circuits (a political division). Later on, China splintered into warlord factions, resulting in the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. Shandong was part of the Five Dynasties, all based in the north.
The Song dynasty reunified China in the late tenth century. The classic novel Water Margin was based on folk tales of outlaw bands active in Shandong during the Song dynasty. In 1996, the discovery of over two hundred buried Buddhist statues at Qingzhou was hailed as a major archaeological find. The statues included early examples of painted figures and are thought to have been buried due to Emperor Huizong's repression of Buddhism (he favored Taoism).
The Song dynasty was forced to cede northern China to the Jurchen Jin dynasty in 1142. Shandong was administered by Jin as Shandong East Circuit and Shandong West Circuit – the first use of its current name.
Early modern history
The modern province of Shandong was created by the Ming dynasty, where it had a more expansive territory, including the agricultural part of Liaoning. After the Ming–Qing Transition in 1644, Shandong acquired (more or less) its current borders.
On 25 July 1668, an earthquake with an estimated magnitude of 8.5 and an epicenter just northeast of Linyi devastated Shandong, and killed between 43,000 and 50,000 people.[21][22]
During the nineteenth century, China became increasingly exposed to Western influence, and Shandong, a coastal province under the dukedom of Xiong, was significantly affected. Qingdao was leased to Germany in 1897 and Weihai to Britain in 1898. As a result of foreign pressure from the Russian Empire, which had annexed Outer Manchuria by 1860, the Qing encouraged settlement of Shandong people to what remained of Manchuria.
Shandong was one of the first places where the Boxer Rebellion broke out, and became one of the centers of the uprising. In 1899, Qing general Yuan Shikai was appointed governor of the province to suppress the uprising. He held the post for three years.
Germany took control of the peninsula in 1898, leasing Jiaozhou Bay and its port of Qingdao under threat of force. Development was a high priority for the Germans: over 200 million marks were invested in world-class harbor facilities including berths, heavy machinery, rail yards, and a floating dry dock. Private enterprises worked across the Shandong Province, opening mines, banks, factories, and rail lines.[23] As a consequence of the First World War, Japan seized German holdings in Qingdao and Shandong. The 1919 Treaty of Versailles transferred ownership to Japan instead of restoring Chinese sovereignty over the area. Popular dissatisfaction with this outcome, referred to as the Shandong Problem, led to the vehement student protests in the May Fourth Movement. Among the reservations to the Treaty that the United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations approved was "to give Shantung to China", the treaty with reservations was not approved. Finally, Shandong reverted to Chinese control in 1922 after the United States' mediation during the Washington Naval Conference. Weihai followed in 1930.[24]
Shandong's return of control fell into the Warlord Era of the Republic of China. Shandong was handed over to the Zhili clique of warlords, but after the Second Zhili–Fengtian War of 1924, the northeast China-based Fengtian clique took over. In April 1925, the Fengtian clique installed the warlord Zhang Zongchang, nicknamed the "Dogmeat General", as military governor of Shandong Province. Time dubbed him China's "basest warlord".[clarification needed][25] He ruled over the province until 1928 when he was ousted in the wake of the Northern Expedition. He was succeeded by Han Fuju, who was loyal to the warlord Feng Yuxiang but later switched his allegiance to the Nanjing government headed by Chiang Kai-shek. Han Fuju also ousted the warlord Liu Zhennian, nicknamed the "King of Shandong East", who ruled eastern Shandong Province, hence unifying the province under his rule.
In 1937 Japan began its invasion of China proper in the Second Sino-Japanese War, which would eventually become part of the Pacific theater of the Second World War. Han Fuju was made Deputy Commander in Chief of the 5th War Area and put in charge of defending the lower Yellow River valley. However, he abandoned his base in Jinan when Japanese troops crossed the Yellow River. He was executed for not following orders shortly thereafter.
During the Japanese occupation, with resistance continuing in the countryside, Shandong was one of the provinces where the scorched-earth Three Alls policy ("kill all", "burn all", and "loot all") was implemented by Japanese general Yasuji Okamura. This lasted until Japan's surrender in 1945, killing millions of people in Shandong and Northern China. By 1945, communist Chinese Red Army forces already held some parts of Shandong. Over the next four years of the Chinese Civil War, they expanded their holdings, eventually driving the Kuomintang (government of the Republic of China) out of Shandong to the island of Taiwan by June 1949, including a noble of the Xiong (熊) family who held the governorship, previously a dukedom during the imperial era, and an ancient viscountcy originating in Chu. The People's Republic of China was proclaimed in October of that year.
Under the new government, parts of western Shandong were initially given to the short-lived Pingyuan Province, but this did not last. Shandong also acquired the Xuzhou and Lianyungang areas from Jiangsu province, but this did not last either. For the most part, Shandong has kept the same borders that it has today.
About six million people starved to death in Shandong during the Great Chinese Famine.[26]
In recent years, Shandong, especially eastern Shandong, has enjoyed significant economic development, becoming one of the People's Republic of China's richest provinces.
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Shandong is on the eastern edge of the North China Plain and in the lower reaches of the Yellow River, and extends out to sea as the Shandong Peninsula. Shandong borders the Bohai Sea to the north, Hebei to the northwest, Henan to the west, Jiangsu to the south, and the Yellow Sea to the northeast, east and southeast. It shares a short border with Anhui between Henan and Jiangsu.
The northwestern, western, and southwestern parts of the province are all part of the vast North China Plain. The province's center is more mountainous, with Mount Tai being the most prominent. The east of the province is the hilly Shandong Peninsula extending into the sea; Miaodao Archipaelago to the north of Shandong Peninsula is the border of Bohai Sea (west) and Yellow Sea (east). The highest peak of Shandong is Jade Emperor Peak, with a height of 1,545 metres (5,069 ft), which is also the highest peak in the Mount Tai Ranges. [citation needed]
The Yellow River passes through Shandong's western areas, since 1855, it has always been entering the sea to Shandong's northern coast; in Shandong, it flows on a levee, higher than the surrounding land, and dividing western Shandong into the Hai He watershed in the north and the Huai River watershed in the south. The Grand Canal of China enters Shandong from the northwest and leaves on the southwest. Weishan Lake is the largest lake in the province. Shandong's coastline is 3,000 kilometres (1,900 mi) long. Shandong Peninsula has a rocky coastline with cliffs, bays, and islands; Laizhou Bay, the southernmost of the 3 bays of the Bohai Sea, is bordering the northern coast between Dongying and Penglai; Jiaozhou Bay, which is much smaller, is surrounded by Qingdao. The Miaodao Islands extends northwards from the northernmost coast of the peninsula, separating the Bohai Sea and the Yellow Sea.
With Jinan serving as the province's economic and cultural center, the province's economic prowess has led to the development of modern coastal cities located at Qingdao, Weihai, and Yantai. [citation needed]
Climate
Shandong has a temperate climate: humid continental (Köppen Dwa); it is bordering humid subtropical (Cwa under the Köppen climate classification) in the south. Generally, summers are hot (typical max 35 °C) and rainy (except for eastern parts of Jiaodong Peninsula (typical max 28 °C) and Mount Tai (typical max 20 °C)), while winters are cold and dry. Average temperatures are −9 to 1 °C (16 to 34 °F) in January and 18 to 28 °C (64 to 82 °F) in July. Annual precipitation is 550 to 950 mm (22 to 37 in), the vast majority of which occurs during summer, due to monsoonal influences.
Geology
Shandong is part of the Eastern Block of the North China craton. Beginning in the Mesozoic, Shandong has undergone a crustal thinning that is unusual for a craton and that has reduced the thickness of the crust from 200 km (120 mi) to as little as 80 km (50 mi). Shandong has hence experienced extensive volcanism in the Tertiary.
Some geological formations in Shandong are rich in fossils. For example, Zhucheng in southeastern Shandong has been the site of discovering many dinosaur fossils. In 2008, about 7,600 dinosaur bones from Tyrannosaurus, Ankylosaurus, and other genera were found, likely the largest collection ever discovered at one location.[27]
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The Shandong Provincial People's Congress is the highest organ of state power in Shandong province and Shandong's provincial legislature. Its standing committee exercises the majority of the power of The Shandong Provincial People's Congress. The current chairman of the standing committee is Li Ganjie.
The Shandong Provincial People's Government is the State Administration in Shandong province. Its main officials are elected and appointed by The Shandong Provincial People's Congress. The provincial government reports to Shandong Provincial People's Congress and State Council of the People's Republic of China.
The current Governor of Shandong is Zhou Naixiang.
As of 1832, Shandong was exporting fruits, vegetables, wine, drugs, and deerskin, often heading to Guangzhou to exchange clothing and fabrics.[20] The economy of Shandong is China's third largest provincial economy with a GDP of CNY¥8.3 trillion in 2021 or USD$1.3 trillion in (nominal), which is equivalent to the GDP of Mexico.[13][14] Its GDP per capita is around the national average. Compared to a country, it would be the 15th-largest economy and the 15th most populous as of 2021.[15]
Shandong ranks first among the provinces in the production of a variety of products, including cotton, wheat, and garlic[28] as well as precious metals such as gold and diamonds. It also has one of the biggest sapphire deposits in the world.[29] Other important crops include sorghum and maize. Shandong has extensive petroleum deposits as well, especially especially the Shengli Oil Field[30]: 39 (lit. Victory Oilfield) in the Dongying area in the Yellow River delta. Shandong also produces bromine from underground wells and salt from seawater. It is the largest agricultural exporter in China.
Shandong is one of China's richest provinces, and its economic development focuses on large enterprises with well-known brand names. Shandong is the biggest industrial producer and one of the top manufacturing provinces in China. Shandong has also benefited from South Korean and Japanese investment and tourism, due to its geographical proximity to those countries.[31] The richest part of the province is the Shandong Peninsula, where the city of Qingdao is home to three of the most well-known brand names of China: Tsingtao Beer, Haier and Hisense. Besides, Dongying's oil fields and petroleum industries form an important component of Shandong's economy. Despite the primacy of Shandong's energy sector, the province has also been plagued with problems of inefficiency and ranks as the largest consumer of fossil fuels in all of China.[31]
| Historical GDP of Shandong Province, 1952–present (SNA2008)[32] (purchasing power parity of Chinese Yuan, as Int'l.dollar based on IMF WEO October 2017[note 1] | |||||||||
| year | GDP | GDP per capita (GDPpc) based on mid-year population |
Reference index | ||||||
| GDP in millions | real growth (%) |
GDPpc | exchange rate 1 foreign currency to CNY | ||||||
| CNY | USD | PPP (Int'l$.) |
CNY | USD | PPP (Int'l$.) |
USD 1 | Int'l$. 1 (PPP) | ||
| 2016 | 6,802,449 | 1,024,110 | 1,943,057 | 7.6 | 68,733 | 10,348 | 19,633 | 6.6423 | 3.5009 |
| 2015 | 6,393,074 | 1,026,439 | 1,801,120 | 8.0 | 65,114 | 10,454 | 18,345 | 6.2284 | 3.5495 |
| 2014 | 6,030,036 | 981,643 | 1,698,410 | 8.7 | 61,774 | 10,056 | 17,399 | 6.1428 | 3.5504 |
| 2013 | 5,602,372 | 904,601 | 1,566,265 | 9.6 | 57,702 | 9,317 | 16,132 | 6.1932 | 3.5769 |
| 2012 | 5,071,045 | 803,334 | 1,428,142 | 9.9 | 52,490 | 8,315 | 14,783 | 6.3125 | 3.5508 |
| 2011 | 4,543,951 | 703,529 | 1,296,235 | 10.9 | 47,416 | 7,341 | 13,526 | 6.4588 | 3.5055 |
| 2010 | 3,962,074 | 585,283 | 1,196,784 | 12.3 | 41,579 | 6,142 | 12,559 | 6.7695 | 3.3106 |
| 2009 | 3,425,154 | 501,413 | 1,084,768 | 12.2 | 36,270 | 5,310 | 11,487 | 6.8310 | 3.1575 |
| 2008 | 3,123,138 | 449,689 | 983,108 | 12.1 | 33,253 | 4,788 | 10,467 | 6.9451 | 3.1768 |
| 2007 | 2,599,074 | 341,804 | 862,076 | 14.3 | 27,833 | 3,660 | 9,232 | 7.6040 | 3.0149 |
| 2006 | 2,205,967 | 276,721 | 766,573 | 14.7 | 23,775 | 2,982 | 8,262 | 7.9718 | 2.8777 |
| 2005 | 1,849,700 | 225,802 | 646,974 | 15.1 | 20,075 | 2,451 | 7,022 | 8.1917 | 2.8590 |
| 2000 | 833,747 | 100,714 | 306,604 | 10.3 | 9,326 | 1,127 | 3,430 | 8.2784 | 2.7193 |
| 1990 | 151,119 | 31,594 | 88,758 | 5.3 | 1,815 | 379 | 1,066 | 4.7832 | 1.7026 |
| 1980 | 29,213 | 19,496 | 19,534 | 12.2 | 402 | 268 | 269 | 1.4984 | 1.4955 |
| 1978 | 22,545 | 14,498 | 10.1 | 316 | 203 | 1.5550 | |||
| 1970 | 12,631 | 5,131 | 15.7 | 199 | 81 | 2.4618 | |||
| 1965 | 8,625 | 3,504 | 22.0 | 152 | 62 | 2.4618 | |||
| 1957 | 6,139 | 2,358 | -3.5 | 116 | 45 | 2.6040 | |||
| 1952 | 4,381 | 1,971 | 91 | 41 | 2.2227 | ||||
Wine industry
The production of wine is the second largest[citation needed] industry in the Shandong Province, second only to agriculture.
Geographically, the coastal areas remain relatively flat. Most of the soil is loose, well-ventilated, and rich in minerals and organic matter that enable full development of the root systems.
Presently, there are more than 140 wineries in the region, mainly distributed in the Nanwang Grape Valley and the Yan-Peng Sightseeing Highway(both are in Yantai). The region produced more than 40% of China's grape wine production.[35] Main varieties such as Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Gernischt, Merlot, Riesling and Chardonnay are all at 20 years of age, considered to be the golden stage for these grapes. Most of them maintain an average saccharinity of above 20%.
Major producers
Economic and technological development zones
- Jinan High-tech Industrial Development Zone
Founded in 1991, the Jinan High-tech Industrial Development zone was one of the first of its kind approved by the State Council. The zone is located to the east of the city and covers a total planning area of 83 km2 (32 sq mi) that is divided into a central area covering 33 km2 (13 sq mi), an export processing district of 10 km2 (3.9 sq mi), and an eastern extension area of 40 km2 (15 sq mi). Since its foundation, the Jinan High-tech Industrial Development Zone has attracted enterprises as LG, Panasonic, Volvo, and Sanyo. In 2000, it joined the world science and technology association and set up a China-Ukraine High-tech Cooperation Park. The Qilu Software Park became the sister park of Bangalore park of India.[citation needed]
- Jinan Export Processing Zone
The export processing zone is located in the eastern suburbs of Jinan, east of the Jinan High-tech Industrial Development Zone, and to the north of the Jiwang highway. The distances to the Jiqing Highway and the Jinan Airport are 9 and 18 km (5.6 and 11.2 mi) respectively.[36]
- Qingdao Economic & Technological Development Area
Approved by the State Council in October 1984, Qingdao Economic and Technical Development Zone has a plan of 12.5 km2 (4.8 sq mi). In 2004 the local GDP was ¥27.51 billion, which increased by 28.9%; the total industrial output value is ¥60.6 billion, which increased by 31%. There have been 48 projects invested by companies listed among the Global Fortune 500 in the zone. With the fast development of reform and opening-up, Haier, Hisense, Aucma, Sinopec, CSIC, CNOOC, CIMC etc. are all located in the zone.[37]
- Qingdao Free Trade Zone
The State Council established Qingdao Free Trade Zone in 1992. The zone is 60 km (37 mi) away from Qingdao Liuting Airport. It is also close to Qingdao Qianwan Container Terminal. At present, more than 40 foreign-invested enterprises have moved in, and 2000 projects have been approved. It is one of the special economic areas which enjoys the most favorable investment policies on customs, foreign exchange, foreign trade, and taxation in China.[citation needed]
- Qingdao High-tech Industrial Zone
The State Council approved Qingdao High-Tech Industrial Development Zone in 1992. The zone is located close to Qingdao Liuting Airport and Qingdao Harbor. Encouraged industries include electronic information, biotechnology, medicine, new materials, new energy, advanced equipment manufacturing, marine science & technology, national defense technology.[38]
- Weifang Binhai Economic & Technological Development Area (BEDA)
Established in August 1995, Weifang Binhai Economic & Technological Development Area (BEDA) is a national economic and technological development area approved by the State Council. Covering an area of 677 km2 (261 sq mi), BEDA has a population of 100,000. BEDA possesses a large state-owned industrial land for use with an area of 400 km2 (150 sq mi). The land can be transacted conveniently, guaranteeing the demand of any project construction and providing broad development space for the enterprises in the area. Continuously, BEDA has been accredited as National Demonstration Zone invigorating the Sea by Science and Technology, National Innovation Base for Rejuvenating Trade through Science and Technology and National Demonstration Eco-Industry Park.
- Weihai Economic & Technological Development Zone
Weihai Economic and Technological Development Zone is a state-level development zone approved by the State Council on Oct 21, 1992. The administrative area has an area of 194 km2 (75 sq mi), including the programmed area of 36 km2 (14 sq mi) and an initial area of 11.88 km2 (4.59 sq mi). Its nearest port is Weihai Port, and the airport closest to the zone is Wuhai Airport.[citation needed]
- Weihai Export Processing Zone
Weihai Export & Processing Zone (EPZ) was set up by the approval of the State Council on April 27, 2000. Weihai EPZ is located in Weihai Economic & Technological Development Zone with programmed area of 2.6 km2 (1.0 sq mi). Weihai EPZ belongs to comprehensive export & processing zone. The EPZ is located 30 km (19 mi) to Weihai Airport, 3 km (1.9 mi) to Weihai railway station and 4 km (2.5 mi) to Weihai Harbor.[citation needed]
- Weihai Torch Hi-Tech Science Park
Weihai Torch Hi-Tech Science Park is a state-level development zone approved by the State Council in March 1991. Located in Weihai's northwest zone of culture, education and science, the Park has the total area of 111.9 square kilometers (43.2 sq mi), the coastal line of 30.5 kilometers (19.0 mi) and 150,000 residents. It is 3 km (1.9 mi) away from the city center, 4 km (2.5 mi) away from Weihai Port, 10 km (6.2 mi) away from Weihai railway station, 30 km (19 mi) away from Weihai Airport and 80 km (50 mi) away from Yantai Airport.[39]
- Yantai Economic and Technological Development Area
Yantai Economic and Technological Development Area is one of the earliest approved state level economic development zones in China. It now has planned area of 10 km2 (3.9 sq mi) and a population of 115,000. It lies on the tip of the Shandong Peninsula facing the Yellow Sea. It adjoins to downtown Yantai, merely 6 km (3.7 mi) away from Yantai Port, 6 km (3.7 mi) away from Yantai railway station, and a 30-minute drive to Yantai International Airport.[40]
- Yantai Export Processing Zone
Yantai Export Processing Zone (YTEPZ) is one of the first 15 export processing zones approved by the State Council. The total construction area of YTEPZ is 4.17 m2 (44.9 sq ft), in which the initial zone covers 3 km2 (1.2 sq mi). After developing for several years, YTEPZ is completely constructed. At present, the infrastructure has been completed, standard workshops of 120,000 m2 (140,000 sq yd) and bonded warehouses of 40,000 m2 (430,000 sq ft) have been built up. Up to now, owning perfect investment environment and conditions, YTEPZ has attracted investors both from foreign countries and regions such as Japan, Korea, Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Sweden, the United States, Canada, etc., and from the domestic to invest and operate in the zone.[41]
- Zibo National New & Hi-Tech Industrial Development Zone
| Year | Pop. | ±% |
|---|---|---|
| 1912[42] | 30,989,000 | — |
| 1928[43] | 28,672,000 | −7.5% |
| 1936-37[44] | 38,100,000 | +32.9% |
| 1947[45] | 38,865,000 | +2.0% |
| 1954[46] | 48,876,548 | +25.8% |
| 1964[47] | 55,519,038 | +13.6% |
| 1982[48] | 74,419,054 | +34.0% |
| 1990[49] | 84,392,827 | +13.4% |
| 2000[50] | 89,971,789 | +6.6% |
| 2010[51] | 95,793,065 | +6.5% |
| 2020[3] | 101,527,453 | +6.0% |
| Qingdao was part of Shandong Province until 1929; dissolved in 1949 and incorporated into Shandong Province. Weihai, also known as Weihaiwei. Established in 1930, dissolved in 1945, and incorporated into Shandong Province. | ||
Shandong is the second most populous province of China, after Guangdong, just slightly ahead of Henan, with a population of more than 101,527,453 at the 2020 Chinese census. Over 99% of Shandong's population is Han Chinese. Minority groups include the Hui and the Manchus. Shandong citizens are also known to have the tallest average height of any Chinese province. As of 2010, 16-18-year-old male students in Yantai measured 176.4 centimetres (5 ft 9.4 in) while female students measured 164 cm (5 ft 5 in).[52]
Religion
The predominant religions in Shandong are Chinese folk religions, Taoist traditions and Chinese Buddhism. According to surveys conducted in 2007 and 2009, 25,28% of the population believes in ancestor veneration, while 1.21% of the population identifies as Christian, decreasing from 1.30% in 2004.[53] The Christians were 1.89% of the province's population in 1949, the largest proportion in China at that time.[53] According to a survey of the year 2010, Muslims constitute 0.55% of Shandong's population up from 0.14% in 1949.[54][55]
The reports did not give figures for other types of religion; 80.05% of the population may be either irreligious or involved in worship of nature deities, Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism, and folk religious sects. Shandong is the province where Confucius was born in the year 551 B.C.
Confucianism: The most well-known religion and/or philosophy of Shandong is Confucianism. Each year thousands of people come to Shandong to visit and learn about Confucius' culture. According to Chinese tradition, Confucius was a thinker, political figure, educator, and founder of the Ru School of Chinese thought. His teachings, preserved in the Lunyu or Analects, form the foundation of much of subsequent Chinese speculation on the ideal man's education and comportment, how such an individual should live his life and interact with others, and the forms of society and government in which he should participate. Additionally, there are many famous books about Confucius; the most famous one is the Analects written by his students. Confucius also helped edit The Five Classics (五经). The Five Classics include The Book of Songs, History, Changes and Rites.[56][57]
Famous view and arts
- The Northern Shaolin Seven Star Praying Mantis style of kung fu is also taught in this province. It is also said that Northern Mantis had originated here and not in the Shaolin temple in Henan Province, which is always stated in books.[citation needed]
- Guandi is also known for Guangong, Guanyu. He is a famous general in the book Romance of the Three Kingdoms. In Daojiao (a traditional Chinese religion), Guangong is also one of the four Protectors.[citation needed]
- Temple and Cemetery of Confucius and the Kong is a very famous World Heritage Site in China, and it is also a 5A Tourist Attraction. Lying to the Temple's east, the Kong Family Mansion developed from a small family house linked to the temple into an aristocratic mansion. The male direct descendants of Confucius lived and worked.[58][59]
|
Shandong is divided into sixteen prefecture-level divisions: all prefecture-level cities (including two sub-provincial cities). On January 1, 2019, Laiwu was wholly annexed to Jinan:
| Administrative divisions of Shandong | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Division code[60] | Division | Area in km2[61] | Population (2020)[62] | Seat | Divisions[63] | ||||||
| Districts | Counties | CL cities | |||||||||
| 370000 | Shandong Province | 157,100.00 | 101,527,453 | Jinan city | 58 | 52 | 26 | ||||
| 370100 | Jinan city | 10,247.01 | 9,202,432 | Lixia District | 10 | 2 | |||||
| 370200 | Qingdao city | 11,175.30 | 10,071,722 | Shinan District | 7 | 3 | |||||
| 370300 | Zibo city | 5,965.17 | 4,704,138 | Zhangdian District | 5 | 3 | |||||
| 370400 | Zaozhuang city | 4,563.22 | 3,855,601 | Xuecheng District | 5 | 1 | |||||
| 370500 | Dongying city | 7,923.26 | 2,193,518 | Dongying District | 3 | 2 | |||||
| 370600 | Yantai city | 13,746.47 | 7,102,116 | Laishan District | 5 | 6 | |||||
| 370700 | Weifang city | 16,143.14 | 9,386,705 | Kuiwen District | 4 | 2 | 6 | ||||
| 370800 | Jining city | 11,186.98 | 8,357,897 | Rencheng District | 2 | 7 | 2 | ||||
| 370900 | Tai'an city | 7,761.83 | 5,472,217 | Taishan District | 2 | 2 | 2 | ||||
| 371000 | Weihai city | 5,796.98 | 2,906,548 | Huancui District | 2 | 2 | |||||
| 371100 | Rizhao city | 5,347.99 | 2,968,365 | Donggang District | 2 | 2 | |||||
| 371300 | Linyi city | 17,191.21 | 11,018,365 | Lanshan District | 3 | 9 | |||||
| 371400 | Dezhou city | 10,356.32 | 5,611,194 | Decheng District | 2 | 7 | 2 | ||||
| 371500 | Liaocheng city | 8,714.57 | 5,952,128 | Dongchangfu District | 2 | 5 | 1 | ||||
| 371600 | Binzhou city | 9,444.65 | 3,928,568 | Bincheng District | 2 | 4 | 1 | ||||
| 371700 | Heze city | 12,193.85 | 8,795,939 | Mudan District | 2 | 7 | |||||
| Administrative divisions in Chinese and varieties of romanizations | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| English | Chinese | Pinyin | ||
| Shandong Province | 山东省 | Shāndōng Shěng | ||
| Jinan city | 济南市 | Jǐnán Shì | ||
| Qingdao city | 青岛市 | Qīngdǎo Shì | ||
| Zibo city | 淄博市 | Zībó Shì | ||
| Zaozhuang city | 枣庄市 | Zǎozhuāng Shì | ||
| Dongying city | 东营市 | Dōngyíng Shì | ||
| Yantai city | 烟台市 | Yāntái Shì | ||
| Weifang city | 潍坊市 | Wéifāng Shì | ||
| Jining city | 济宁市 | Jǐníng Shì | ||
| Tai'an city | 泰安市 | Tài'ān Shì | ||
| Weihai city | 威海市 | Wēihǎi Shì | ||
| Rizhao city | 日照市 | Rìzhào Shì | ||
| Linyi city | 临沂市 | Línyí Shì | ||
| Dezhou city | 德州市 | Dézhōu Shì | ||
| Liaocheng city | 聊城市 | Liáochéng Shì | ||
| Binzhou city | 滨州市 | Bīnzhōu Shì | ||
| Heze city | 菏泽市 | Hézé Shì | ||
The 16 prefecture-level cities of Shandong are subdivided into 137 county-level divisions (55 districts, 26 county-level cities, and 56 counties). Those are in turn divided into 1941 township-level divisions (1223 towns, 293 townships, two ethnic townships, and 423 subdistricts).
Urban areas
| Population by urban areas of prefecture & county cities | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| # | City | Urban area[64] | District area[64] | City proper[64] | Census date |
| 1 | Jinan[lower-alpha 2] | 3,527,566 | 4,335,989 | 8,396,142 | 2010-11-01 |
| (1) | Jinan (new districts)[lower-alpha 2] | 1,261,040 | 2,880,687 | see Jinan | 2010-11-01 |
| 2 | Qingdao[lower-alpha 3] | 3,519,919 | 3,718,835 | 8,715,087 | 2010-11-01 |
| (2) | Qingdao (new district)[lower-alpha 3] | 1,036,158 | 2,045,549 | see Qingdao | 2010-11-01 |
| 3 | Zibo | 2,261,717 | 3,129,228 | 4,530,597 | 2010-11-01 |
| 4 | Yantai | 1,797,861 | 2,227,733 | 6,968,202 | 2010-11-01 |
| 5 | Linyi | 1,522,488 | 2,303,648 | 10,039,440 | 2010-11-01 |
| 6 | Weifang | 1,261,582 | 2,044,028 | 9,086,241 | 2010-11-01 |
| 7 | Tai'an | 1,123,541 | 1,735,425 | 5,494,207 | 2010-11-01 |
| 8 | Zaozhuang | 980,893 | 2,125,481 | 3,729,140 | 2010-11-01 |
| 9 | Jining[lower-alpha 4] | 939,034 | 1,241,012 | 8,081,905 | 2010-11-01 |
| (9) | Jining (new district)[lower-alpha 4] | 388,449 | 618,394 | see Jining | 2010-11-01 |
| 10 | Rizhao | 902,272 | 1,320,578 | 2,801,013 | 2010-11-01 |
| 11 | Dongying[lower-alpha 5] | 848,958 | 1,004,271 | 2,035,338 | 2010-11-01 |
| (11) | Dongying (new district)[lower-alpha 5] | 114,073 | 242,292 | see Dongying | 2010-11-01 |
| 12 | Tengzhou | 783,473 | 1,603,659 | see Zaozhuang | 2010-11-01 |
| 13 | Weihai[lower-alpha 6] | 698,863 | 844,310 | 2,804,771 | 2010-11-01 |
| (13) | Weihai (new district)[lower-alpha 6] | 310,628 | 673,625 | see Weihai | 2010-11-01 |
| 14 | Xintai | 672,207 | 1,315,942 | see Tai'an | 2010-11-01 |
| 15 | Liaocheng | 606,366 | 1,229,768 | 5,789,863 | 2010-11-01 |
| 16 | Zhucheng | 586,652 | 1,086,222 | see Weifang | 2010-11-01 |
| 17 | Heze[lower-alpha 7] | 559,636 | 1,346,717 | 8,287,693 | 2010-11-01 |
| (17) | Heze (new district)[lower-alpha 7] | 166,037 | 565,793 | see Heze | 2010-11-01 |
| 18 | Dezhou[lower-alpha 8] | 526,232 | 679,535 | 5,568,235 | 2010-11-01 |
| (18) | Dezhou (new district)[lower-alpha 8] | 170,317 | 569,007 | see Dezhou | 2010-11-01 |
| 19 | Zoucheng | 513,418 | 1,116,692 | see Jining | 2010-11-01 |
| 20 | Shouguang | 476,274 | 1,139,454 | see Weifang | 2010-11-01 |
| 21 | Feicheng | 472,775 | 946,627 | see Tai'an | 2010-11-01 |
| 22 | Gaomi | 466,786 | 895,582 | see Weifang | 2010-11-01 |
| 23 | Pingdu | 427,694 | 868,348 | see Qingdao | 2010-11-01 |
| 24 | Binzhou[lower-alpha 9] | 407,820 | 682,717 | 3,748,474 | 2010-11-01 |
| (24) | Binzhou (new district)[lower-alpha 9] | 146,577 | 351,672 | see Binzhou | 2010-11-01 |
| 25 | Jiaozhou | 404,216 | 1357,424 | see Qingdao | 2010-11-01 |
| (26) | Zouping[lower-alpha 10] | 389,003 | 778,777 | see Binzhou | 2010-11-01 |
| 27 | Longkou | 388,770 | 688,255 | see Yantai | 2010-11-01 |
| 28 | Qingzhou | 384,358 | 940,355 | see Weifang | 2010-11-01 |
| 29 | Laizhou | 379,789 | 883,896 | see Yantai | 2010-11-01 |
| 30 | Linqing | 376,337 | 719,611 | see Liaocheng | 2010-11-01 |
| 31 | Rongcheng | 363,420 | 714,355 | see Weihai | 2010-11-01 |
| 32 | Laiyang | 358,092 | 878,591 | see Yantai | 2010-11-01 |
| 33 | Laixi | 347,452 | 750,225 | see Qingdao | 2010-11-01 |
| 34 | Qufu | 302,805 | 640,498 | see Jining | 2010-11-01 |
| 35 | Anqiu | 300,160 | 926,894 | see Weifang | 2010-11-01 |
| 36 | Changyi | 287,720 | 603,482 | see Weifang | 2010-11-01 |
| 37 | Zhaoyuan | 281,780 | 566,244 | see Yantai | 2010-11-01 |
| 38 | Rushan | 259,876 | 572,481 | see Weihai | 2010-11-01 |
| 39 | Haiyang | 244,600 | 638,729 | see Yantai | 2010-11-01 |
| 40 | Leling | 214,238 | 652,415 | see Dezhou | 2010-11-01 |
| 41 | Qixia | 204,633 | 589,620 | see Yantai | 2010-11-01 |
| 42 | Yucheng | 203,724 | 490,031 | see Dezhou | 2010-11-01 |
| 43 | Penglai | 185,894 | 451,109 | see Yantai | 2010-11-01 |
- UK: /ʃænˈdʊŋ/ shan-DUUNG,[6] US: /ʃɑːnˈdɔːŋ/ shahn-DAWNG;[7] simplified Chinese: 山东; traditional Chinese: 山東; alternately romanized as Shantung
- Laiwu PLC is currently no longer exist after census it merged with Jinan in 2019. Laiwu PLC's districts merged after census: Laiwu (Laicheng), Gangcheng; and new districts established after census: Zhangqiu (Zhangqiu CLC), Jiyang (Jiyang County). Laiwu PLC's districts and the new districts not included in the urban area & district area count of the pre-expanded city.
- New district established after census: Jimo (Jimo CLC); Jiaonan CLC merged into Xihai'an (Huangdao) after census. The new district and annexed area not included in the urban area & district area count of the pre-expanded city.
- New district established after census: Yanzhou (Yanzhou CLC). The new district not included in the urban area & district area count of the pre-expanded city.
- New district established after census: Kenli (Kenli County). The new district not included in the urban area & district area count of the pre-expanded city.
- New district established after census: Wendeng (Wendeng CLC). The new district not included in the urban area & district area count of the pre-expanded city.
- New district established after census: Dingtao (Dingtao County). The new district not included in the urban area & district area count of the pre-expanded city.
- New district established after census: Lingcheng (Lingxian County). The new district not included in the urban area & district area count of the pre-expanded city.
- New district established after census: Zhanhua (Zhanhua County). The new district not included in the urban area & district area count of the pre-expanded city.
Most populous cities in Shandong Source: China Urban Construction Statistical Yearbook 2018 Urban Population and Urban Temporary Population[65] | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rank | Pop. | Rank | Pop. | ||||||
 Qingdao  Jinan |
1 | Qingdao | 5,127,000 | 11 | Weihai | 968,500 |  Linyi  Yantai | ||
| 2 | Jinan | 4,154,900 | 12 | Heze | 917,900 | ||||
| 3 | Linyi | 2,188,300 | 13 | Dongying | 911,900 | ||||
| 4 | Yantai | 2,186,100 | 14 | Liaocheng | 910,600 | ||||
| 5 | Zibo | 1,824,600 | 15 | Rizhao | 900,000 | ||||
| 6 | Jining | 1,577,400 | 16 | Binzhou | 887,600 | ||||
| 7 | Weifang | 1,497,600 | 17 | Laiwu | 720,000 | ||||
| 8 | Dezhou | 1,074,200 | 18 | Shouguang | 574,900 | ||||
| 9 | Tai'an | 1,027,100 | 19 | Xintai | 555,000 | ||||
| 10 | Zaozhuang | 1,025,800 | 20 | Zhucheng | 496,900 | ||||
Mandarin dialects are spoken in Shandong. Linguists classify these dialects into three broad categories: Ji Lu Mandarin spoken in the northwest (as well as in neighboring Hebei), such as the Jinan dialect; Zhongyuan Mandarin spoken in the southwest (as well as in neighboring Henan); and Jiao Liao Mandarin spoken in the Shandong Peninsula (as well as the Liaodong Peninsula(e.g., Dalian, Dandong) and the southeastern Jilin(e.g., Baishan, Tonghua)), such as the Weihai Dialect. When people speak of the "Shandong dialect" (山東話), it is generally the first or the second that is meant; the Jiao Liao dialects of Shandong are commonly called the "Jiaodong dialect" (膠東話).
Shandong cuisine (鲁菜) is one of the eight great traditions of Chinese cuisine. It is known for its bread(corn-based) and fish dishes.[66] It can be more finely divided into inland Shandong cuisine (e.g. Jinan cuisine); the seafood-centered Jiaodong cuisine in the peninsula; and Confucius's Mansion cuisine, an elaborate tradition originally intended for imperial and other important feasts.
Shandong Bangzi and Lüju are popular types of Chinese opera in Shandong; both originated from southwestern Shandong.
The Jingjiu railway (Beijing-Kowloon) and Jinghu railway (Beijing-Shanghai) are both major arterial railways that pass through the western part of Shandong. The Jingjiu passes through Liaocheng and Heze; the Jinghu passes through Dezhou, Jinan, Tai'an, Yanzhou (the Jinghu high-speed railway will through Qufu) and Zaozhuang. The Jiaoji railway is an important railway of Shandong, linking its two largest cities of Qingdao and Jinan, with the longest history of all.
Shandong has one of the densest and highest quality expressway networks among all Chinese provinces. These National Trunk Highway System (NTHS) expressways pass through or begin in Shandong. Expressways that begin in Shandong are in bold:
- G2 Jinghu Expressway (Beijing–Shanghai)
- G3 Jingtai Expressway (Beijing–Taipei, Taiwan)
- G15 Shenhai Expressway (Shenyang, Liaoning–Haikou, Hainan)
- G18 Rongwu Expressway (Rongcheng–Wuhai, Inner Mongolia)
- G20 Qingyin Expressway (Qingdao–Yinchuan, Ningxia)
- G22 Qinglan Expressway (Qingdao–Lanzhou, Gansu)
- G25 Changshen Expressway (Changchun, Jilin–Shenzhen, Guangdong)
There are also many shorter regional expressways within Shandong.
The Shandong Peninsula, with its bays and harbours, has many important ports, including Qingdao, Yantai, Weihai, Rizhao, Dongying and Longkou. Many of these ports have historical significance and the sites of former foreign naval bases or historical battles. Ferries link the cities on the north coast of the peninsula with the Liaodong Peninsula, further north across the sea.
Important airports include Jinan Yaoqiang Airport and Qingdao Jiaodong International Airport. Other airports are Dongying Shengli Airport, Jining Qufu Airport, Linyi Shubuling Airport, Weifang Airport, Weihai Dashuibo Airport and Yantai Laishan International Airport.
As of the end of 2018, Qingdao is the only city in Shandong with a metro system, with four lines in operation. Jinan was opened in early 2019.
Tourist attractions in Shandong include:
- Jinan, the capital city of Shandong since Ming dynasty, renowned for its 72 Famous Springs.
- Baotu Spring, a culturally significant artesian karst spring, declared as "Number One Spring under the Heaven" (天下第一泉) by the Qianlong Emperor of the Qing dynasty.
- Daming Lake, the largest lake in Jinan, whose water is from the area's springs. Marco Polo described its beauty in his works.
- Thousand Buddha Mountain, renowned for its numerous Buddha images which have been carved out of the hill's rock faces or free-standing structures erect since the times of the Sui dynasty and its Xingguochan Temple.
- Fuxue Confucian Temple of Jinan.
- Lingyan Temple, one of the four most famous temples (四大名刹) in Tang dynasty, in which there is 11th century Pizhi Pagoda and the Thousand Buddha Hall which houses a Ming dynasty bronze Buddha statue as well as 40 painted clay statues of life-size luohan from the Song dynasty.
- remnant of Great Wall of Qi, the oldest existing Great Wall in China, which is built in 685 BCE and stretches from Jinan to Qingdao.
- Penglai, a town on the north of the Shandong peninsula famed in Taoism.
- Qingdao (a former German port city), is a beach resort city on the south of the peninsula that has German-era heritage architecture and is also famous for its Tsingtao beer.
- Ba Da Guan, made up of eight streets named after the eight great military forts of ancient times.
- Zhan Qiao, a long strip pier stretches into the sea and was the first wharf at Qingdao.
- Laoshan, a scenic area and Daoist center to the east of Qingdao.
- Qingzhou, an ancient trading and administrative center with some famous archaeological discoveries.
- Weihai, a former British port city important in the second Sino-Japanese War has British-era heritage architecture.
- World Heritage Sites:
- Temple and Cemetery of Confucius, and the Kong Family Mansion in Qufu
The northern quarters of the Cemetery of Confucius - Tai Shan, sacred mountain, in Tai'an
- Temple and Cemetery of Confucius, and the Kong Family Mansion in Qufu
- Weifang has numerous natural and historic sites, such as Shihu Garden (from the Late Ming and early Qing dynasty), Fangong Pavilion (from the Song dynasty), fossil sites (including dinosaur fossils, in Shanwang, Linqu), Mount Yi National Forest Park and Mount Qingyun. Yangjiabu has painted New Year woodcuts, which are also famous all around China.
Colleges and universities
Shandong is considered one of China's leading provinces in education and research. Shandong hosts 153 higher education institutions, ranking second in the East China region after Jiangsu and fourth among all Chinese provinces/municipalities after Jiangsu, Guangdong and Henan.[16]
As of 2023, two major cities in the province ranked in the top 50 cities in the world (Jinan 32nd and Qingdao 43rd) by scientific research output, as tracked by the Nature Index.[17]
- Shandong University (Jinan)
- Ocean University of China (Qingdao)
- China University of Petroleum (Dongying and Qingdao)
- University of Jinan (Jinan)
- Shandong Normal University
- Shandong Agricultural University (Tai'an)
- Shandong University of Finance and Economics (Jinan)
- Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine (Jinan)
- Harbin Institute of Technology (Weihai)
- China Agricultural University (Yantai)
- Harbin University of Science and Technology (Weihai)
- Yantai University (Yantai)
- Qufu Normal University (Qufu)
- Qingdao University (Qingdao)
- Shandong University of Science and Technology (Qingdao)
- Shandong University of Technology (Zibo)
- Liaocheng University (Liaocheng)
- Linyi University (Linyi)
- Qingdao Agricultural University (Qingdao)
- Binzhou Medical College (Binzhou)
- Jining Medical University (Jining)
- Weifang Medical University (Weifang)
- Weifang University (Weifang)
- Shandong Institute of Business and Technology (Yantai)
- Shandong Women's University (Jinan)
- Qingdao Technical College (Qingdao)
- Rizhao Polytechnic (Rizhao)
- Zibo Vocational Institute (Zibo)
- Qingdao Binhai University (Qingdao)
- Shandong Foreign Languages Vocational College (Rizhao)
Events held in Shandong
Professional sports teams based in Shandong
Former professional sports teams based in Shandong
- Purchasing power parity of Chinese Yuan, as Int'l.dollar based on IMF WEO October 2017. Purchasing power parity (PPP) for Chinese yuan is estimate according to IMF WEO[33] data; Exchange rate of CN¥ to US$ is according to State Administration of Foreign Exchange, published in the China Statistical Yearbook.[34]
- The data was collected by the Chinese General Social Survey (CGSS) of 2009 and by the Chinese Spiritual Life Survey (CSLS) of 2007, reported and assembled by Xiuhua Wang (2015)[53] in order to confront the proportion of people identifying with two similar social structures: ① Christian churches, and ② the traditional Chinese religion of the lineage (i. e. people believing and worshipping ancestral deities often organised into lineage "churches" and ancestral shrines). Data for other religions with a significant presence in China (deity cults, Buddhism, Taoism, folk religious sects, Islam, et al.) was not reported by Wang. The number of Muslims is taken from a survey reported in the year 2010.[54]
- This may include:
- Buddhists
- Confucians
- Deity worshippers
- Taoists
- Members of folk religious sects
- People not bounded to, nor practicing any, institutional or diffuse religion
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