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The Guanzi (Chinese: 管子) is an anonymously written, foundational Chinese political and philosophical text. Compiled in the early Han dynasty, earlier versions potentially date back to the late Warring states period. At over 135,000 characters, it is one of the longest early Chinese philosophical texts. It covers broad subject matter, notably including price regulation of commodities via the concept of "light and heavy" (轻重). Despite its later dating, it is arguably one of the most representative texts of the concepts of political economy that developed during the Spring and Autumn period.[1] Ming dynasty agricultural scientist Xu Guangqi still frequently cited the Guanzi and the Xunzi.[2]
| Guanzi | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Chinese | 管子 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Literal meaning | "[Writings of] Master Guan" | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Along with the Daoistic Neiye, the Guanzi contains chapters like "Straight Thinking" and "Pure Heart" (chuan 13, essays 36-38; "Xin Shu" parts one and two, and "Pai Xin"), which K. C. Hsiao took as chapters "clarifications of Huang-Lao ("Yellow Emperor Daoist") tenets." Although Liu Xin viewed the work as "Legalist" (Fajia), the Guanzi was still listed as Daoist in the Book of Han's Journal of Literature Chapter 30, which lists texts like Shen Buhai, Shen Dao and Han Feizi as 'Legalist'. The Guanzi was not listed as 'Legalist' until the Book of Sui's Journal of Writings.[3][4] Guo Moruo proposed that the chapters were written by school of names thinkers, but evidence for this is lacking.[5]
Most chapters of the text deal with government and the art of rulership. Although prominent in Taiwan, translator W. Allyn Rickett dissented from the traditional Confucian view of the text as Legalist, judging it to present a view much closer to that of the late Warring States period's "realistic" Confucian Xunzi than either the "highly idealistic Confucianism of Mencius" or the "Draconian Legalism" of Shang Yang. The Guanzi shares with other "Legalist" texts the view that power is independent of morality, emphasizing techniques (Shu) of government, but still advocates "law" (Fa) as an adjunct to Confucian Li.
The Guanzi is named for and traditionally attributed to the 7th century BCE philosopher and statesman Guan Zhong, who served as Prime Minister to Duke Huan of Qi.[6] It was, however, written by several anonymous authors. The precise date of creation remains subject to historical debate.[7] It contains a wide variety of material from many different authors over several successive centuries, largely associated with the 4th century BCE Jixia Academy in the Qi capital of Linzi. But the Han dynasty scholar Liu Xiang did not edit the received Guanzi text until circa 26 BCE.[6][8][9]
The present text is "arguably a much later expression of ideas in the direction of the Han Feizi". None of its existing chapters would appear to predate the first century BCE, so that much of it would have been compiled after the Han Feizi. However, the Han Feizi is the first reference for both the Guanzi and the Book of Lord Shang. With Han Fei reputedly dying in 233 BC, a "proto-Guanzi" theoretically "took shape" in earlier form around 250 BCE, in the late Warring States period. Based on the Han Feizi, despite a late dating, an earlier Guanzi might have already been in broad circulation by the late Warring States period, along with the Book of Lord Shang.[10][11][12]: 357 If the text is taken as Huang-Lao, representative of the early Daoistic Han, then although controversial, it represents the kind of mileu that Sinologist Hansen (Stanford Encyclopedia) thinks was already becoming dominant by the Qin dynasty, based on the Mawangdui silk texts.[13]
As is typical of an ancient Chinese text, the organization of the Guanzi has been altered over time, the chronology and significance of which is not all that clear. Covering a wide variety of subjects, ranging from detailed economic discussions to overviews of local soil topography, many chapters include Confucian values as a necessity for the state, expressing a blend of what may be considered Legalistic, Confucian, and Daoistic philosophy that has been termed "Huang-Lao". The first reference to the collection appears in the more Daostic Huainanzi, of the early Han dynasty,[9] and Han bibliographies listed the text as Daoist.[14]
Yin-yang and five phase ideas play a more important role in later chapters.[15] Its Neiye ("Inner Enterprise/Training") has a potential influence for the Zhuangzi,[12]: 357 and has the oldest recorded descriptions of Daoist meditation techniques.
When you enlarge your mind and let go of it,
When you relax your [qi 氣] vital breath and expand it,
When your body is calm and unmoving:
And you can maintain the One and discard the myriad disturbances.
You will see profit and not be enticed by it,
You will see harm and not be frightened by it.
Relaxed and unwound, yet acutely sensitive,
In solitude you delight in your own person.
This is called "revolving the vital breath":Your thoughts and deeds seem heavenly. (24, tr. Roth 1999:92)
Several chapters of the Guanzi address what modern language would call economic and monetary issues. It is a core text on the matter of price stabilization from the ancient Chinese perspective.[16] The economic policies discussed focus on insulating peasants from fluctuations in the context of then-recently developed market forces and to increase commercialization while benefitting the state.[17] “[T]his approach to economic policy suggested that the state should unleash and harness market forces in order to promote wealth for the state and the people.”[18]
The "state savings" (國蓄) chapter has been described as the first-ever exposition of the quantity theory of money, and the "light and heavy" (轻重) chapter as the first clear articulation of the law of supply and demand:[19]
Now, the price of grain is heavy in our state and light in the world at large. Then the other lords’ goods will spontaneously leak out like water from a spring flowing downhill. Hence, if goods are heavy, they will come; if light they will go.
In the Guanzi's usage of "heavy," and "light," the former connotes something that is expensive or important while the latter connotes inexpensive or unimportant.[16] In this view, "all economic phenomena can only be understood relationally; things can be heavy or light only in relation to other things."[20]
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