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无领袖抵抗（Leaderless resistance）或幽灵组织架构（phantom cell structure）是一种举事策略，指小型的独立团体（秘密小组）或个人（孤狼）挑战一个既定的敌手，例如：法律、经济制度、社会秩序或政府。无领袖抵抗可以包含非暴力抗议和公民不服从反抗行为，以及财产破坏、恐怖主义和其他暴力活动等任何形式。
无领袖抵抗缺乏垂直、双向性的指挥联结，通常在没有上级领导的情况下运作；[1] 但是他们会有一个共同的目标，将他们与社会运动联系起来，并从中学习到意识形态。[2]
无领袖抵抗已被广泛运用于各种社会运动，包括动物权利运动、激进环保主义运动、反全球化运动、反堕胎运动、抵御军事入侵、无政府主义组织、反殖民主义、恐怖主义、种族优越主义和仇恨团体。[2]
无领袖抵抗包含的人数通常很少，可能是一个孤独的个体，也可能是一小群人。这种结构有个典型的基本特征，就是每个为共同目标而行动的小组之间，没有明确清楚的联系沟通，成员们通常知之甚少，甚至全然不知，还有谁也在为他们相同的目标而活动。[1]
有些无领袖抵抗可能具有象征性的领袖。[1] 这个人可以是公众人物、匿名化名者或具有启发性的励志作家，他为运动挑选主要攻击目标和对象，但并没有实际操纵或执行任何计划。大众媒体在这种情况下，经常会制造积极影响的反馈循环，通过发表运动榜样的宣言，在潜在举事者的心中灌输运动的动机、理念和假想的同情心；相反，这些举事者又会赋予象征领袖更大的权威性。[1] 虽然初步看来，这可能大致类似于垂直指挥结构，但它很明显是单向结构，即名义上的领袖做出宣言，运动分子有可能对这个号召作出反应，但是这两个层级之间并没有任何确定的联系。[2]
由于这种结构既没有可以被摧毁的中央机构，也没有能够被渗透的各小组之间的连接；结果就是，无领袖抵抗组织不会受到内奸和反叛者的任何影响。因此，与采用更传统等级制度的运动相比，政府机构要想遏制无领袖抵抗运动的发展，要比阻止传统的阶层组织更加困难。[1]
由于它不匀称的特性，以及它通常是在面对权力不平衡时采取的战略，无领袖抵抗和游击战有着许多相似共通之处。然而，后者通常保留某些形式的有组织化的双向领导机制，而且往往比无领袖抵抗的个体行动，有着较广大人数的行动。在一些情况下，大规模的无领袖运动可能发展出互相密和的暴动或者游击运动，例如第二次世界大战中的南斯拉夫人民解放军和游击队。
无领袖抵抗通常涉及暴力手段的抵抗，但不限于此。非暴力团体也可以使用相同的组织结构，进行创作、印刷和分发地下出版物，利用英特网对政治敌手发起自我传播的抵制，维护一个不受政府税收体制和银行交易记录控制的替代电子货币等。[3]
无领袖抵抗的概念源于1950年代初期，由美国前情报官员尤留思·路易斯·阿莫斯上校提出。[4][5] 他作为一位反共产主义者，将无领袖抵抗视为中情局支持的抵抗组织渗透和摧毁苏联控制东欧国家的一种手段。[6][5]
这个概念在1983年反政府三K党成员路易·毕姆的一篇文章中重新出现并流行起来，1992年再次出现，并在极端右翼分子的落基山集会上作为主旨发表。[7][4][8] 毕姆提倡无领袖抵抗是白人民族主义继续与美国政府斗争的一种手段，尽管权力和资源存在巨大的不平衡。[5]
毕姆认为传统的金字塔等级结构，对于从事反抗政府斗争的参与者们而言，极其危险，因为在它很容易泄露指挥链；然而一个不太危险的可操作方法，是说服志同道合的同志组成独立的小组，彼此之间没有密切的联络，但基本上朝着同一个方向行动。[1]
更多较近期的例子包括：黄背心运动、反抗灭绝和＃MeToo，似乎都是以无领袖抵抗方式出现，或许是因为社交媒体的盛兴，将有共同不满情绪的人聚集在一起，即使他们缺乏有组织的领导者。[9]
已隱藏部分未翻譯内容，歡迎參與翻譯。
动物解放
动物解放首个记录在案的直接行动发生于1824年，最初由“Band of Mercy”发起，经过漫长延展成为无领袖抵抗，目标是阻止猎狐者。[10] Inspired by this group and after seeing a pregnant deer driven into the village by fox hunters to be killed, John Prestige decided to actively oppose this sport and formed the Hunt Saboteurs Association in 1964. Within a year, a leaderless model of hunt-sabotage groups was formed across the United Kingdom.[10]
A new Band of Mercy was then formed in 1972. It used direct action to liberate animals and cause economic sabotage against those thought to be abusing animals. Ronnie Lee and others changed the name of the movement to the Animal Liberation Front (ALF) in 1976 and adopted a leaderless resistance model focusing broadly on animal liberation.[11]
Earth First! and the environmental movement in the 1980s also adopted the leaderless resistance model.[12] An animal liberation movement advocating violence emerged with the name Animal Rights Militia (ARM) in 1982. Letter bombs were sent to the then British Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher. Two years later the name Hunt Retribution Squad (HRS) was also used.[13][14]
The Earth Liberation Front (ELF) formed in 1992, breaking from Earth First! when that organization decided to focus on public direct action, instead of the ecotage that the ELF participated in.[15] A violent group called the Justice Department was established in 1993, and in 1994 sent razor blades to hunters such as Prince Charles and to animal researchers.[16][17]
In 1999 the leaderless resistance strategy was employed by animal liberation organisations like Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty (SHAC), which was formed from the Consort beagles campaign and Save the Hill Grove Cats to close down Huntingdon Life Sciences (HLS). Despite claiming successes[18] leaderless animal liberation and environmental movements generally lack the broad popular support that often occurs in strictly political or military conflicts. The Revolutionary Cells--Animal Liberation Brigade (RCALB) appeared in 2003 and sent pipe bombs to Chiron Corporation and used incendiary devices against other targets, whilst a year later on the south coast of Dorset, the Lobster Liberation Front (LLF) was founded.[19]
Within a few years of the victories claimed by the SHAC, other campaigns against animal testing laboratories emerged. At the same time, SPEAK Campaigns and the more radical ALF militants, Oxford Arson Squad began their campaigns towards the same goal: to end Oxford University's animal research.
In April 2009, the Militant Forces Against Huntingdon Life Sciences (MFAH) became active. With the ALF, they began targeting HLS customer and financial Directors, as well as company property. Since then, groups have reported over a dozen actions in Europe, including painting homes, burning cars, and grave desecration. Militants, however, oppose ALF ideology, instead believing in any necessary action to prevent suffering at HLS's laboratories.[20]
激进伊斯兰主义
Leaderless resistance is also often well-suited to terrorist objectives. The Islamist organization Al-Qaeda uses a typical figurehead/leaderless cell structure. The organization itself may be pyramidal, but sympathizers who act on its pronouncements often do so spontaneously and independently.
Given the small, clandestine character of terrorist cells, it is easy to assume they necessarily constitute leaderless resistance models. When there is bidirectional communication with external leadership, however, the label is inappropriate. The men who executed the bombings of the London Underground on July 7, 2005 constituted a leaderless resistance cell in that they purportedly acted out of sympathy for Islamic fundamentalism but under their own auspices. The hijackers involved in the September 11 attacks, by contrast, allegedly received training, direction, and funding from Al-Qaeda, and are not properly designated a leaderless cell.
新纳粹与白人民族主义
The concept of leaderless resistance remains important to far-right thinking in the United States, as a proposed response to perceived federal government over-reach at the expense of individual rights. Simson Garfinkel, however, found in his research that for the most part the far right seldom used this tactic. Timothy McVeigh is one example in the United States. McVeigh worked in a small cell which based its attack on motivations widespread among far-right anti-government groups and the militia movement.
Leaderless resistance has been advocated by white supremacist groups such as White Aryan Resistance (WAR) and the British neo-Nazi Combat 18 (C18). The modern Ku Klux Klan is also credited with having developed a leaderless resistance model.[21] Troy Southgate also advocated forms of leaderless resistance during his time as a leading activist in the National Revolutionary Faction and a pioneer of National-Anarchism. James Mason a former American Nazi Party member and neo-Nazi was a proponent of the idea of "leaderless resistance" as detailed in SIEGE a collection of writings from the defunct National Socialist Liberation Front (NSLF) which advocated violence against political opponents, Jews and non-whites of which he deemed to be the supposedly Jewish controlled entity he referred to as "The System" which has since been embraced by the terrorist group Atomwaffen Division (AWD) in the modern day.
Stormfront, Aryan Nations, and Hammerskin Nation (HSN) link to Beam's Leaderless Resistance. These groups promote lone wolf actions. While nominally decrying violence, the sites praise the man who "practices what he preaches, and who backs up his words with his deeds."[22] Stormfront, while regretting the loss of life, explains how Benjamin Nathaniel Smith's 1999 killing spree was compelled by circumstances. The World Church of the Creator (WCOTC) gave a mixed message, calling Smith "a selfless man who gave his life in the resistance to Jewish/mud tyranny," but noting "the Church does not condone his acts."[22]
Examples of modern-day leaderless resistance/lone-wolf terrorism include:
- 1999 Los Angeles Jewish Community Center shooting
- 1999 murders of Gary Matson and Winfield Mowder
- 2008 Knoxville Unitarian Universalist church shooting
- 2009 United States Holocaust Memorial Museum shooting
- 2011 Norway attacks
- 2012 Wisconsin Sikh temple shooting
- 2014 Overland Park Jewish Community Center shooting
- 2015 Charleston church shooting
- 2015 Lafayette shooting
- 2016 Murder of Jo Cox
- 2017 Quebec City mosque shooting
- 2018 Pittsburgh synagogue shooting
- 2019 Christchurch mosque shootings
- 2019 Escondido mosque fire and Poway synagogue shooting
- 2019 El Paso shooting
- 2022 Buffalo shooting
- 2022 Colorado Springs nightclub shooting
激进环保主义
Leaderless resistance emerged in the environmental movement in 1976 when John Hanna and others as the Environmental Life Force (ELF) (also known now as the original ELF) used explosive and incendiary devices. The group conducted armed actions in northern California and Oregon, later disbanding in 1978 following Hanna's arrest for placing incendiary devices on seven crop-dusters at the Salinas, California airport on May Day, 1977.[23] A decade and a half later this form of guerrilla warfare resurfaced using the same acronym.
In 1980 Earth First! was founded by Dave Foreman and others to confront environmental destruction, primarily of the American West. Inspired by the Edward Abbey novel The Monkey Wrench Gang, Earth First! made use of such techniques as treesitting[24] and treespiking[25] to stop logging companies, as well as other activities targeted towards mining, road construction,[26] suburban development, and energy companies.
The organization was committed to nonviolent ecotage techniques from the group's inception. Others split from the movement in the 1990s, including the Earth Liberation Front (ELF) in 1992, which named itself after the Animal Liberation Front (ALF) which had formed in the 1970s.[27] Three years later in Canada, inspired by the ELF in Europe, the first Earth Liberation direct action occurred, but this time as the Earth Liberation Army (ELA), a similar movement who use ecotage and monkeywrenching as a tool.
A series of actions earned ELF the label of eco-terrorists,[28][29] including the burning of a ski resort in Vail, Colorado in 1998, and the burning of an SUV dealership in Oregon in 1999. In the same year the ELA made headlines by setting fire to the Vail Resorts in Washington, D.C., causing $12 million in damages.[30] The defendants in that case were later charged in the FBI's "Operation Backfire" with other crimes; this was later named by environmentalists as the Green Scare, alluding to the Red Scare periods of fear over communist infiltration of U.S.[31][32]
Following the September 11, 2001 attacks several laws were passed increasing the penalty for ecoterrorism, and the U.S. Congress held hearings on the activity of groups such as the ELF. To date no one has been killed as a result of an ELF or ALF action, and both groups forbid harming human or non-human life.[33]
In 2005 the FBI announced that the ELF was America's greatest domestic terrorist threat, responsible for over 1,200 "criminal incidents" amounting to tens of millions of dollars in damage to property.[34] The United States Department of Homeland Security confirmed this with regards to both the ALF and ELF.[35]
Plane Stupid launched in 2005, an attempt to combat the growing airport expansions in the UK by using direct action. A year later the first Camp for Climate Action was held, with 600 people attending a protest called Reclaim Power and then converging on Drax Power Station in North Yorkshire in an attempt to shut it down. There were thirty-eight arrests, with four breaching the fence and the railway line being blocked.[36][37]
组织
- Camp for Climate Action
- Earth First!
- Earth Liberation Army (ELA)
- Earth Liberation Front (ELF)
- Environmental Life Force
- Plane Stupid
- Antifa
反堕胎运动
已隱藏部分未翻譯内容，歡迎參與翻譯。
网络分析
Leaderless resistance social networks are potentially vulnerable to social network analysis and its derivative, link analysis. Link analysis of social networks is the fundamental reason for the ongoing legislative push in the U.S. and the European Union for mandatory retention of telecommunication traffic data and for limiting access to anonymous prepaid cellphones, as the stored data contain important network analysis clues.
Network analysis was successfully used by French Colonel Yves Godard to break the Algerian resistance between 1955 and 1957 and force them to cease their bombing campaigns. The Algerian conflict may be better described as guerrilla in nature rather than leaderless resistance (see Modern Warfare by Col. Roger Trinquier), and this illustrates the weakness of cell-structured insurgents when compared to leaderless ones. The mapping data were obtained by the use of informants and torture and were used to obtain the identities of important individuals in the resistance; these individuals were then assassinated, which disrupted the Algerian resistance networks. The more irreplaceable the individual is in the adversary's network, the greater the damage is done to the network by removing them.
无领袖抵抗的优势
Traditional organizations leave behind much evidence of their activities, such as money trails, and training and recruitment material. Leaderless resistances, supported more by ideologies than organizations, generally lack such traces. The effects of their operations, as reported by the mass media, act as a sort of messaging and recruitment advertising.
Paul Joosse argues that leaderless resistance movements can avoid the ideological disputes and infighting that plague radical groups. They do this by limiting interaction to the virtual realm.[2]
The internet provides counter-insurgents with further challenges. Individual cells (and even a single person can be a cell) can communicate over the internet, anonymously or semi-anonymously sharing information online, to be found by others through well-known websites. Even when it is legally and technically possible to ascertain who accessed what, it is often practically impossible to discern in a reasonable time frame who is a real threat and who is just curious, a journalist, or a web crawler.
Despite these advantages, leaderless resistance is often unstable. If the actions are not frequent enough or not successful, the stream of publicity, which serves as the recruiting, motivation, and coordination drives for other cells, diminishes. On the other hand, if the actions are too successful, support groups and other social structures will form that are vulnerable to network analysis.英国作家克莱夫·埃格尔顿于1970年发行小说《抵抗的一部分》（A Piece of Resistance），2004年在美国以《永不投降》（Never Surrender）为名再版，描述对苏联占领英格兰的抵抗。
美国作家约翰·罗斯于1996年发行小说《意料外的结果》（Unintended Consequences），描述在华盛顿远郊在经历长达几十年的恐吓以后，终于在美国腹地成功完成的一次无领袖抵抗的起义。
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