塞尔柱帝国

大塞尔柱帝国（土耳其語：Büyük Selçuklu İmparatorluğu；波斯語：دولت سلجوقیان‎），又称塞尔柱帝国、塞尔柱土耳其帝国，是中世纪时期的突厥－波斯^{[8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15]}、逊尼派伊斯兰帝国，由乌古斯人中的一支发展而来^[16]，领土范围东至兴都库什山脉，西至东部安纳托利亚，北至中亚，南至波斯湾，塞尔柱人由咸海发迹，随后挺进呼罗珊，再入波斯地区，最终征服东安纳托利亚。

Büyük Selçuklu İmparatorluğu دولت سلجوقیان Dawlat-i Saljūqiān 大塞尔柱帝国
1037年—1194年
1092年处于鼎盛时期的大塞尔柱帝国
地位	帝国
首都	内沙布尔 (1037–1043) 雷伊 (1043–1051) 伊斯法罕 (1051–1118) 哈马丹，西都 (1118–1194) 梅尔夫，东都 (1118–1153)
常用语言	波斯语（官方语言与宫廷语言，主要书面与口头语言）[1][2][3] 阿拉伯语（学术[1]、科学和神学[3]语言） 乌古斯突厥语[3][4]（日常语言，菁英用语）
政府	君主制
苏丹或沙阿
• 1037–1063	圖赫里勒一世（首）
• 1174–1194	圖赫里勒三世（末）[5][6]
历史
• 圖赫里勒建国	1037年
• 花剌子模建国[7]	1194年
面积
1080年估计	3,900,000平方公里
前身 继承 加兹尼王国 白益王朝 沙勒立王朝 拜占庭帝国 格古益王朝 古尔王朝 花剌子模帝國 鲁姆苏丹国 阿尤布王朝 埃爾迪古茲王朝 布里迪王朝 赞吉王朝 达尼什曼德王朝 阿尔图格王朝 萨尔图吉王朝
今属于	今属于  阿富汗  亞美尼亞  阿塞拜疆  中國  埃及  格鲁吉亚  伊朗  伊拉克  以色列  约旦  哈萨克斯坦  科威特  吉尔吉斯斯坦  黎巴嫩  阿曼  巴勒斯坦  俄羅斯  沙烏地阿拉伯  叙利亚  塔吉克斯坦  土耳其  土库曼斯坦  阿联酋  乌兹别克斯坦  葉門

11世纪前半叶，塞尔柱王朝的创立者图格鲁勒·贝格为帝国的建立打下了基础。自1037年正式建國後，塞尔柱人统一了支离分裂的东部伊斯兰世界，并在第一次和第二次十字军东征中扮演了重要的角色。塞尔柱帝国在文化^[17][18][19]和语言^{[10][20][21][22][23]}上表现为高度波斯化^{[10][11][12][13]}，并在突厥-波斯文化的发展传承上具有十分重要的地位^[24]，同时还将波斯文化传播至安纳托利亚^[25][26]。突厥部落在帝国西北部的战略性定居大大促进了这些地区的突厥化^[27]。

歷史

背景

八世紀伊朗地區在經歷伊斯蘭征服後，相繼由阿拉伯帝國倭馬亞王朝（又称伍麥葉、奧米亞、白衣大食）、阿拔斯王朝（黑衣大食）統治。隨著阿拔斯王朝與拜占庭帝國的長年戰爭，帝國對伊朗地區的控制持續衰弱。九世紀末，薩曼·胡達（英语：Saman Khuda）擊退阿拉伯人，在伊朗東部建立了薩曼王朝。十世紀末，薩曼的突厥奴隸將軍阿爾普特勤及其女婿蘇布克特勤自立加兹尼王朝，取代舊主，掌握伊朗東部的統治權；與重奪伊朗西部的阿拉伯白益王朝分庭抗禮。在動亂中，各勢力常僱傭北方中亞地區的游牧民族為傭兵，烏古斯人是其中較為強大的一支。

建立

起初，塞爾柱人屬於烏古斯人中的一個部族，以雇傭兵的身分在突厥斯坦地區活躍。西元985年，由於與烏古斯領袖的爭執，塞爾柱·貝格帶領部族離開了烏古斯葉護國，獨立為新的部族。他們在錫爾河一帶游牧並皈依伊斯蘭教，並以傭兵的身分參與了喀喇汗國的王位內戰，與烏古斯族、加兹尼王朝交惡。

1040年，塞爾柱的孫子圖赫里勒·貝格與恰格勒·貝格於丹丹納干戰役中打倒了宿敵加兹尼王国，征服了伊朗東部的呼羅珊地區，圖赫里勒自立為蘇丹。為紀念祖父，兄弟將國名命為塞爾柱蘇丹國。

擴張

建國之後，图格鲁勒將目光轉向波斯灣北部，佔領了伊拉克一帶、米底亞王國南部哈馬丹等地。1055年，他替阿拔斯哈里發從白益王朝手中奪回巴格達，被正式追封為蘇丹。塞爾柱人以哈里發的支持為後盾，進一步往南部巴勒斯坦地區以及西部小亞細亞今（土耳其）擴張。

此一時期的西亞，原先控制約旦河流域的法蒂瑪王朝、握有小亞細亞的東羅馬帝國皆因連年征戰和國內腐敗面臨衰退，塞爾柱人多次蠶食臣屬這兩國的勢力，彼此間的衝突日漸白熱化。

1071年8月，第二任蘇丹阿爾普·阿爾斯蘭在曼齊刻爾特之戰大敗由羅曼努斯四世所率領的東羅馬帝國軍隊，正式占領小亞細亞^[28]。同年，塞爾柱人從法蒂瑪王朝手中奪得聖城耶路撒冷^[29]。在突厥部族從東方大舉移入的情況下^[30]，東羅馬皇帝阿萊克修斯一世向教宗烏爾班二世求救。教宗因此在法國克列芒發表演說，招募民衆解放聖地耶路撒冷。該演說直接促成了後來的第一次十字軍^[31]。

第三任蘇丹馬立克沙一世則專注於與帝國東方的對手交戰，他先後擊敗宿敵喀喇汗國、加兹尼王国，穩固塞爾柱在中亞河中地區的統治，使帝國的疆域達到極致。

暗殺、分裂、十字軍

参见：罗姆苏丹国

儘管塞爾柱帝國擴張迅速，由於突厥遊牧民本身行政人才的缺乏，使帝國必須仰賴大量原住民管理被征服地。以宰相尼札姆·穆勒克為首，帝國的軍政要職大多由波斯人把持，「伊克塔」制的推行側面象徵突厥人缺乏管理領地行政的意願。另外，由於宗教政策的緣故，波斯人與伊斯瑪儀派的關係也持續惡化，阿薩辛等極端派系也隨之出現。

1092年底，馬立克沙一世與尼札姆的政爭爆發，多方政治、宗教勢力介入之下，兩人在不到一個月的時間內接連被刺殺。權力的真空使帝國陷入分裂，繼承人間為爭奪王位紛紛佔地為王，基利傑阿爾斯蘭一世统治着安纳托利亚的罗姆苏丹国，突突什一世（英语：Tutush I）则执掌叙利亚，耶路薩冷重新為法提瑪王朝掌控。而突突什一世於1095年死去后，其子法赫尔·穆尔克·拉德温（英语：Fakhr al-Mulk Radwan）和杜卡克又分别继承了阿勒颇和大马士革，繼承人短命與戰亂頻繁的惡性循環使帝國陷入衰退之中^[32]。

在第一次十字军东征之前就分裂為若干勢力的塞爾柱帝國，在面對歐洲人攻擊時疲於應對，基利傑阿爾斯蘭一世便於尼西亞、埃斯基謝希爾等地陷入苦戰，無力阻止十字軍的步伐。最終，塞爾柱人喪失了地中海沿岸的大部分領土。

滅亡

1141年，西遼在卡特萬之戰擊敗塞爾柱帝國，使塞爾柱失去了对中亞的控制。

1153年，烏古斯人擒獲蘇丹艾哈邁德·桑賈爾，並攻下古都內沙布爾，塞爾柱失去對波斯的控制，實際領土退縮至伊拉克和阿塞拜疆一帶。

1194年，花剌子模國王塔乞失在哈馬丹打敗塞爾柱末代蘇丹圖赫里勒三世，塞爾柱帝國滅亡，版圖併入花剌子模王朝。1243年，蒙古帝国入侵小亚细亚，蒙古大將拜住在克塞山戰役中擊潰罗姆苏丹国的軍隊，从此罗姆苏丹国沦为蒙古伊儿汗国的藩属。1299年罗姆苏丹国发生分裂，1307年从历史记录上消失。

統治者列表

自馬立克沙一世遇刺後，長期內戰使獨立政權在伊拉克、亞塞拜然、敍利亞等地頻繁出現，本表僅列出實際控制波斯地區的蘇丹：

蘇丹	統治年期	註解
圖赫里勒·貝格	1037年-1063年	與胞弟恰格勒·貝格採行雙元統治。
阿爾普·阿爾斯蘭	1063年-1072年
馬立克沙一世	1072年-1092年
馬哈茂德一世（英语：Mahmud I of Great Seljuq）	1092年-1094年
巴爾基雅魯克	1094年-1105年
馬立克沙二世（英语：Malik-Shah II）	1105年	控制區只有呼羅珊一帶
穆罕默德一世（英语：Muhammad I Tapar）	1105年-1117年	實際掌權者為其兄桑賈爾。
艾哈邁德·桑賈爾	1117年-1153年

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28. 愛德華.吉朋《羅馬帝國衰亡史》【第五卷】
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