自我組織

自我組織（英語：self-organization），在社会科学中也称为自发秩序（spontaneous order），是指一种过程，这种过程中，最初的无序系统中各部分之间局部相互作用，形成了某种形式的整体秩序。当能量供给充足时，该过程无需任何外部主体控制即可自发进行。它通常由看似随机的波动触发，并经由正反馈放大。由此产生的组织是完全分散的，分布在系统的所有组成成分中。因此，这种组织往往是稳健的，能够经受重大干扰并自我修复。混沌理论根据大量混乱的不可预测性中的可预测性孤岛来讨论自组织。

200 °C水热处理过程中微米级Nb₃O₇(OH)立方体的自组织。最初的无定形立方体逐渐转变为结晶纳米线的有序3D网格，如下面的模型所示。^[1]

自组织发生在许多物理、化学、生物、机器人和認知系统中。自组织的例子有结晶、流体的热對流、化学振荡器（英语：Chemical oscillator）、动物集群、神经回路和黑市。

概述

自组织可在非平衡过程的物理现象，以及化学反应中实现^[2]，在反应中通常称作自組裝。这一概念在生物学中，从分子到生态系统水平也均有应用。^[3]许多其他学科的文献也给出了自组织行为的案例，包括自然科学和社会科学（如经济学或人类学）。元胞自动机等数学系统中也能观察到自组织现象。^[4]自组织是涌现这一概念的一个例子。^[5]

自组织依赖于四个基本要素：^[6]

1. 强动态非线性，通常（但未必）涉及正反馈和负反馈
2. 开发与探索的平衡
3. 组分之间的多重相互作用
4. 能量的输入（克服熵增的自然趋势，或自由能的损失）

原理

控制论者威廉·罗斯·艾什比于1947年提出了自组织的最初的原理则。^[7][8]原理指出，任何确定性动力系统都会自发向平衡状态演化，这种平衡状态可以视为周围状态域中的吸引子。一旦到达那里，系统接下来的发展就被限制在吸引子中。这种约束意味着其构成组件或子系统之间存在一种相互依赖或协调的形式。用艾什比的话来说，每个子系统都适应了所有其他子系统构成的环境。^[7]

控制论者海因茨·冯·福斯特于1960年提出了“从噪声产生秩序”的原理。^[9]该原理指出，随机干扰（“噪声”）会促进自组织，使系统在其状态空间中探索各种状态。这增加了系统到达“强”或“深”吸引域的机会，然后从那里迅速进入吸引子本身。生物物理学家亨利·阿特兰（英语：Henri Atlan）提出“从噪声产生复杂性”原理（法語：le principe de complexité par le bruit^[10]）^[11][12]，发展了这一概念， 他首先是在1972年出版的L'organisation biologique et la théorie de l'information一书中，然后是在1979年出版的Entre le cristal et la fumée一书中提出了“从噪声产生复杂性”。物理学家兼化学家伊利亚·普里高津提出了一个类似的原理，称为“来自波动的秩序”^[13]或“来自混沌的秩序”。^[14]它被应用于问题求解和机器学习的模拟退火方法中。^[15]

參見

• 数学概念：分形 - 随机图 - 冪定律 - 六度分隔理论 - 細胞自動機
• 物理概念：热力学 - 非平衡態熱力學 - 建構理論 - 统计力学 - 相變 - 耗散結構 - 湍流
• 化學概念：反应-扩散系统（英语：Reaction–diffusion system） - 自催化反应
• 生物概念：演化論 - 形态发生 - 內環境穩態 - 協同動力學
• 社会概念：參與組織
• 系统科学概念：控制論 - 自生系統論
• 复杂系统概念：呈展現象 - 演化計算 - 人工生命 - 自組化臨界 - 混沌的边缘 - 自发秩序 - 介穩態
• 電腦科學概念：群体智能
• 哲學概念：組織形態學 - 互補對（complementary pairs）
• 自組織協同網絡
• 群體築巢行為
• 無為而治

参考文献

1. Betzler, S. B.; Wisnet, A.; Breitbach, B.; Mitterbauer, C.; Weickert, J.; Schmidt-Mende, L.; Scheu, C. Template-free synthesis of novel, highly-ordered 3D hierarchical Nb₃O₇(OH) superstructures with semiconductive and photoactive properties (PDF). Journal of Materials Chemistry A. 2014, 2 (30): 12005. doi:10.1039/C4TA02202E .
2. Glansdorff, P., Prigogine, I. (1971). Thermodynamic Theory of Structure, Stability and Fluctuations, London: Wiley-Interscience ISBN 0-471-30280-5
3. Compare: Camazine, Scott. Self-organization in Biological Systems. Princeton studies in complexity reprint. Princeton University Press. 20032003 [2016-04-05]. ISBN 978-0-691-11624-2.
4. Ilachinski, Andrew. Cellular Automata: A Discrete Universe. World Scientific. 2001: 2472001. ISBN 978-981-238-183-5. We have already seen ample evidence for what is arguably the single most impressive general property of CA, namely their capacity for self-organization
5. Feltz, Bernard; et al. Self-organization and Emergence in Life Sciences. 2006: 1. ISBN 978-1-4020-3916-4.
6. Bonabeau, Eric; Dorigo, Marco; Theraulaz, Guy. Swarm intelligence: from natural to artificial systems. OUP. 1999: 9–11. ISBN 978-0-19-513159-8.
7. Ashby, W. R. Principles of the Self-Organizing Dynamic System. The Journal of General Psychology. 1947, 37 (2): 125–28. PMID 20270223. doi:10.1080/00221309.1947.9918144.
8. Ashby, W. R. (1962). "Principles of the self-organizing system" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, pp. 255–78 in Principles of Self-Organization. Heinz von Foerster and George W. Zopf, Jr. (eds.) U.S. Office of Naval Research.
9. Von Foerster, H. (1960). "On self-organizing systems and their environments" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, pp. 31–50 in Self-organizing systems. M.C. Yovits and S. Cameron (eds.), Pergamon Press, London
10. See occurrences （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） on Google Books.
11. See occurrences （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） on Google Books.
12. François, Charles (编). International Encyclopedia of Systems and Cybernetics 2nd. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. 2011: 107. ISBN 978-3-11-096801-9.
13. Nicolis, G. and Prigogine, I. (1977). Self-organization in nonequilibrium systems: From dissipative structures to order through fluctuations. Wiley, New York.
14. Prigogine, I. and Stengers, I. (1984). Order out of chaos: Man's new dialogue with nature. Bantam Books.
15. Ahmed, Furqan; Tirkkonen, Olav. Simulated annealing variants for self-organized resource allocation in small cell networks. Applied Soft Computing. January 2016, 38: 762–70. S2CID 10126852. doi:10.1016/j.asoc.2015.10.028.

延伸阅读

• W. Ross Ashby (1966), Design for a Brain, Chapman & Hall, 2nd edition.
• Per Bak (1996), How Nature Works: The Science of Self-Organized Criticality （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Copernicus Books.
• Philip Ball (1999), The Self-Made Tapestry: Pattern Formation in Nature^{[失效連結]}, Oxford University Press.
• Stafford Beer, Self-organization as autonomy: Brain of the Firm 2nd edition Wiley 1981 and Beyond Dispute Wiley 1994.
• Adrian Bejan (2000), Shape and Structure, from Engineering to Nature, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 324 pp.
• Mark Buchanan (2002), Nexus: Small Worlds and the Groundbreaking Theory of Networks W. W. Norton & Company.
• Scott Camazine, Jean-Louis Deneubourg, Nigel R. Franks, James Sneyd, Guy Theraulaz, & Eric Bonabeau (2001) Self-Organization in Biological Systems （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Princeton Univ Press.
• Falko Dressler (2007), Self-Organization in Sensor and Actor Networks （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Wiley & Sons.
• Manfred Eigen and Peter Schuster (1979), The Hypercycle: A principle of natural self-organization, Springer.
• Myrna Estep (2003), A Theory of Immediate Awareness: Self-Organization and Adaptation in Natural Intelligence, Kluwer Academic Publishers.
• Myrna L. Estep (2006), Self-Organizing Natural Intelligence: Issues of Knowing, Meaning, and Complexity, Springer-Verlag.
• J. Doyne Farmer et al. (editors) (1986), "Evolution, Games, and Learning: Models for Adaptation in Machines and Nature", in: Physica D, Vol 22.
• Carlos Gershenson and Francis Heylighen (2003). "When Can we Call a System Self-organizing?" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） In Banzhaf, W, T. Christaller, P. Dittrich, J. T. Kim, and J. Ziegler, Advances in Artificial Life, 7th European Conference, ECAL 2003, Dortmund, Germany, pp. 606–14. LNAI 2801. Springer.
• Hermann Haken (1983) Synergetics: An Introduction. Nonequilibrium Phase Transition and Self-Organization in Physics, Chemistry, and Biology, Third Revised and Enlarged Edition, Springer-Verlag.
• F.A. Hayek Law, Legislation and Liberty, RKP, UK.
• Francis Heylighen (2001): "The Science of Self-organization and Adaptivity" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）.
• Arthur Iberall (2016), Homeokinetics: The Basics, Strong Voices Publishing, Medfield, Massachusetts.
• Henrik Jeldtoft Jensen (1998), Self-Organized Criticality: Emergent Complex Behaviour in Physical and Biological Systems, Cambridge Lecture Notes in Physics 10, Cambridge University Press.
• Steven Berlin Johnson (2001), Emergence: The Connected Lives of Ants, Brains, Cities, and Software.
• Stuart Kauffman (1995), At Home in the Universe, Oxford University Press.
• Stuart Kauffman (1993), Origins of Order: Self-Organization and Selection in Evolution Oxford University Press.
• J. A. Scott Kelso (1995), Dynamic Patterns: The self-organization of brain and behavior, The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
• J. A. Scott Kelso & David A Engstrom (2006), "The Complementary Nature", The MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
• Alex Kentsis (2004), Self-organization of biological systems: Protein folding and supramolecular assembly （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Ph.D. Thesis, New York University.
• E.V. Krishnamurthy (2009)", Multiset of Agents in a Network for Simulation of Complex Systems", in "Recent advances in Nonlinear Dynamics and synchronization, (NDS-1) – Theory and applications, Springer Verlag, New York,2009. Eds. K.Kyamakya, et al.
• Paul Krugman (1996), The Self-Organizing Economy, Cambridge, Massachusetts, and Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
• Elizabeth McMillan (2004) "Complexity, Organizations and Change".
• Marshall, A (2002) The Unity of Nature, Imperial College Press: London (esp. chapter 5)
• Müller, J.-A., Lemke, F. (2000), Self-Organizing Data Mining.
• Gregoire Nicolis and Ilya Prigogine (1977) Self-Organization in Non-Equilibrium Systems, Wiley.
• Heinz Pagels (1988), The Dreams of Reason: The Computer and the Rise of the Sciences of Complexity, Simon & Schuster.
• Gordon Pask (1961), The cybernetics of evolutionary processes and of self organizing systems, 3rd. International Congress on Cybernetics, Namur, Association Internationale de Cybernetique.
• Christian Prehofer ea. (2005), "Self-Organization in Communication Networks: Principles and Design Paradigms", in: IEEE Communications Magazine, July 2005.
• Mitchell Resnick (1994), Turtles, Termites and Traffic Jams: Explorations in Massively Parallel Microworlds, Complex Adaptive Systems series, MIT Press.^[缺少ISBN]
• Lee Smolin (1997), The Life of the Cosmos Oxford University Press.
• Ricard V. Solé and Brian C. Goodwin (2001), Signs of Life: How Complexity Pervades Biology], Basic Books.
• Ricard V. Solé and Jordi Bascompte (2006), in Complex Ecosystems （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, Princeton U. Press
• Soodak, Harry; Iberall, Arthur. Homeokinetics: A Physical Science for Complex Systems. Science. 1978, 201 (4356): 579–582. Bibcode:1978Sci...201..579S. PMID 17794110. S2CID 19333503. doi:10.1126/science.201.4356.579.
• Steven Strogatz (2004), Sync: The Emerging Science of Spontaneous Order, Thesis.
• D'Arcy Thompson (1917), On Growth and Form, Cambridge University Press, 1992 Dover Publications edition.
• J. Tkac, J Kroc (2017), Cellular Automaton Simulation of Dynamic Recrystallization: Introduction into Self-Organization and Emergence "(open source software)" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） "Video – Simulation of DRX" （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
• Tom De Wolf, Tom Holvoet (2005), Emergence Versus Self-Organisation: Different Concepts but Promising When Combined, In Engineering Self Organising Systems: Methodologies and Applications, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, volume 3464, pp. 1–15.
• K. Yee (2003), "Ownership and Trade from Evolutionary Games", International Review of Law and Economics, 23.2, 183–197.
• Louise B. Young (2002), The Unfinished Universe^[缺少ISBN]

外部链接

• Max Planck Institute for Dynamics and Self-Organization, Göttingen
• PDF file on self-organized common law with references
• An entry on self-organization at the Principia Cybernetica site （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
• The Science of Self-organization and Adaptivity （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, a review paper by Francis Heylighen
• The Self-Organizing Systems (SOS) FAQ by Chris Lucas, from the USENET newsgroup comp.theory.self-org.sys
• David Griffeath, Primordial Soup Kitchen （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） (graphics, papers)
• nlin.AO, nonlinear preprint archive （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, (electronic preprints in adaptation and self-organizing systems)
• Structure and Dynamics of Organic Nanostructures 互联网档案馆的存檔，存档日期April 21, 2016，.
• Metal organic coordination networks of oligopyridines and Cu on graphite 互联网档案馆的存檔，存档日期June 11, 2016，.
• Selforganization in complex networks （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） The Complex Systems Lab, Barcelona
• Computational Mechanics Group at the Santa Fe Institute
• "Organisation must grow" (1939) （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） W. Ross Ashby journal p. 759, from The W. Ross Ashby Digital Archive （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
• Cosma Shalizi's notebook on self-organization from 2003-06-20 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）, used under the GFDL with permission from author.
• Connectivism:SelfOrganization
• UCLA Human Complex Systems Program （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
• "Interactions of Actors (IA), Theory and Some Applications" 1993 （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） Gordon Pask's theory of learning, evolution and self-organization (in draft).
• The Cybernetics Society （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
• Scott Camazine's webpage on self-organization in biological systems
• Mikhail Prokopenko's page on Information-driven Self-organisation (IDSO) （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆）
• Lakeside Labs Self-Organizing Networked Systems （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） A platform for science and technology, Klagenfurt, Austria.
• Watch 32 discordant metronomes synch up all by themselves （页面存档备份，存于互联网档案馆） theatlantic.com