James D.G. Dunn写道,虽然使徒保罗的复活经验是“在本质上是异象的”、“非物理的和非物质的”,但福音书中的记载是非常不同的。他认为,“(福音书)外表那种……巨大的现实性很难说是异象——而且路加肯定会拒绝这种不恰当的说法”,因此耶路撒冷基督徒团体最早的复活概念是物质性的[5]。相反,赫尔穆特·科斯特(Helmut Koester)写道,复活故事最初是一种少數人經驗,再經過口耳相傳,门徒被复活的耶稣召唤去事工,并在第二个阶段中被解释为事件的物理证明。他认为,对复活更详细叙述是一手的資料,是来自历史上可信的来源,兼属于叙事种类的类型[6]。
在他的著作《第一次到来:神的国如何成为基督教》中,托马斯·希恩( Thomas Sheehan)认为,即使保罗对复活的描述也不是指从一个真实的、物理的身体从坟墓中复活,而且,身体性复活的故事直到十字架事件后半个世纪才出现[9]。相反,托马斯·希恩认为,保罗对复活的理解(这也许是彼得的理论)是一个形而上的复活,它用(比喻上的)耶稣复活故事来说明他胜利地“进入上帝末世的情景中”[10],而且,保罗提到耶稣“在第三日复活”(哥林多前书15:4)“不是一个时间顺序的指定,而是一个启示性的象征符号,象征上帝末世的救赎行动,它严格来说没有一个确切的历史日期,因此‘第三日’并不指代到公元30年4月9日星期日,或任何其他时刻。至于复活发生的‘地方’,哥林多前书中的叙述并不是认为耶稣是从坟墓里复活的,好像这样的复活是一个身体性的、时间性的复活一样。‘他在第三天复活’并不是指复活的超自然物理学,而是说,它相信耶稣从上帝完全缺席的命运(死亡)中被拯救出来,并和拯救的上帝同在(末世论的未来)”[11]。
对复活历史性的怀疑及其他解释
EarlyChristianWritings.com的创始人彼得·柯比(Peter Kirby)说:“许多学者怀疑空墓的历史性”[12]。根据罗伯特·普莱斯(Robert M. Price),基督徒“护教者倾向于认为……耶稣的复活是历史上得到最好证明的事件”,但“概率论”则表明“复活绝对不是一个一目了然的案件”[13]。Cypress学院哲学和宗教研究教授罗伯特·格雷格·卡文(Robert Greg Cavin)说:“我们唯一的潜在证据来源,即新约复活节传统,远远不能提供建立复活假设所需的信息[14]”。
反对复活故事的历史性也有各种其他的论据。例如,很多人指出很多其它历史人物和神具有类似死亡和复活的记载[23]。但是,圣经研究学者的多数共识是,福音书的类型是一种古代传记,而不是神话[24]。Robert M. Pricee声称,如果复活可以事实上通过科学或历史证据来证明,那么,复活事件将失去它的神迹的性质[25]。在一个更集中的观点中,Carrier说,“流传下来合法和具有历史性的证据表明耶稣没有在星期五晚上被正式埋葬”,但“星期六晚上埋葬必须被安排在一个专为罪犯预留的公共坟场里”。根据这个理论,星期天参观坟墓的那个妇女上午走错了地方,看到了空坟墓[26]。
5世纪西奥多(Theodore of Mopsuestia)的神学让人了解到基督教理解复活的救赎性质的历史发展。在当时,圣礼在救恩的调解中的关键作用是被广泛接受的。在西奥多对圣餐的讨论中,牺牲和救赎的元素与“那位通牺牲自我而拯救和救赎我们的耶稣”结合在一起。西奥多对于圣礼仪式的解释针对的是复活所带来的对死亡力量的战胜[55]。
James D.G. Dunn, Jesus and the Spirit: A Study of the Religious and Charismatic Experience of Jesus and the First Christians as Reflected in the New Testament. Eerdmans, 1997. p. 115, 117.
Peter Kirby, "The Case Against the Empty Tomb," In Price, Robert M.(英语:Robert M. Price); Lowder, Jeffrey Jay, eds. (2005).The Empty Tomb: Jesus Beyond the Grave. Amherst: Prometheus Books. p. 233. ISBN 1-59102-286-X.
Robert M. Price(英语:Robert M. Price), Robert M. Price(英语:Robert M. Price), "The Empty Tomb: Introduction; The Second Life of Jesus." In Price, Robert M.(英语:Robert M. Price); Lowder, Jeffrey Jay, eds. (2005). The Empty Tomb: Jesus Beyond the Grave. Amherst: Prometheus Books. p. 13. ISBN 1-59102-286-X.
Robert Greg Cavin, "Is There Sufficient Historical Evidence to Establish the Resurrection of Jesus?" In Price,Robert M.(英语:Robert M. Price); Lowder, Jeffrey Jay, eds. (2005).The Empty Tomb: Jesus Beyond the Grave. Amherst: Prometheus Books. p. 36. ISBN 1-59102-286-X.
Vermes, Geza (2008). The Resurrection: History and Myth. New York: Doubleday. pp. 142–148. ISBN 978-0-7394-9969-6。The quoted material appeared in 小型大写字母 in Vermes's book.
Funk, Robert W.(英语:Robert W. Funk) and the 耶稣研究会. The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus.HarperSanFrancisco. 1998. "John the Baptist" cameo, p. 268.
Robert M. Price(英语:Robert M. Price), "The Empty Tomb: Introduction; The Second Life of Jesus." In Price,Robert M.(英语:Robert M. Price); Lowder, Jeffrey Jay, eds. (2005). The Empty Tomb: Jesus Beyond the Grave. Amherst: Prometheus Books. p. 14. ISBN 1-59102-286-X.
Burridge, R. A. (2006). Gospels. In J. W. Rogerson & Judith M. Lieu (Eds) The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 437
Robert M. Price(英语:Robert M. Price), "The Empty Tomb: Introduction; The Second Life of Jesus." In Price,, Robert M.(英语:Robert M. Price); Lowder, Jeffrey Jay, eds. (2005). The Empty Tomb: Jesus Beyond the Grave. Amherst: Prometheus Books. p. 14. ISBN 1-59102-286-X.
Richard C. Carrier, "The Burial of Jesus in Light of Jewish Law." In Price, Robert M.; Lowder, Jeffrey Jay, eds. (2005). The Empty Tomb: Jesus Beyond the Grave. Amherst: Prometheus Books. p. 369. ISBN 1-59102-286-X.
Bart Ehrman, From Jesus to Constantine: A History of Early Christianity, Lecture 4: "Oral and Written Traditions about Jesus" [The Teaching Company, 2003].
Terry Miethe in Did Jesus Rise from the Dead? The Resurrection Debate, ed. Terry Miethe (San Francisco: Harper and Row,1987), xi. Quoted by Michael Martin(英语:Michael Martin (philosopher)), "The Resurrection as Initially Improbable". In
The ‘‘Parousia’‘ is the term used in the Bible, see Strong's G3952 (页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆) for details, which includes theThayer's(英语:Joseph Henry Thayer) Lexicon definition: "In the N.T. especially of the advent, i.e.,the future, visible, return from heaven of Jesus, the Messiah, to raise the dead, hold the last judgment, and set up formally and gloriously the kingdom of God". According to the Bauer lexicon(英语:Bauer lexicon): "of Christ, and nearly always of his Messianic Advent in glory to judge the world at the end of this age".
Neufeld, The Earliest Christian Confessions (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964) p. 47; Reginald Fuller, The Formation of the Resurrection Narratives (New York: Macmillan, 1971) p. 10; Wolfhart Pannenberg, Jesus—God and Man translated Lewis Wilkins and Duane Pribe (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1968) p. 90; Oscar Cullmann, The Early Church: Studies in Early Christian History and Theology, ed. A. J. B. Higgins (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1966) p. 64; Hans Conzelmann, 1 Corinthians, translated James W. Leitch (Philadelphia: Fortress 1969) p. 251; Bultmann,Theology of the New Testament vol. 1 pp. 45, 80–82, 293; R. E. Brown, The Virginal Conception and Bodily Resurrection of Jesus (New York: Paulist Press, 1973) pp. 81, 92;Most Fellows of the Jesus Seminar concluded that this tradition dates to before Paul's conversion, c AD 33. Funk, Robert W.(英语:Robert W. Funk) and the 耶稣研究会. The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus.HarperSanFrancisco. 1998. Empty Tomb, Appearances & Ascension p. 449-495.
see Wolfhart Pannenberg, Jesus—God and Mantranslated Lewis Wilkins and Duane Pribe (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1968) p. 90; Oscar Cullmann, The Early church: Studies in Early Christian History and Theology, ed. A. J. B. Higgins (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1966) p. 66–66; R. E. Brown, The Virginal Conception and Bodily Resurrection of Jesus (New York: Paulist Press, 1973) pp. 81; Thomas Sheehan, First Coming: How the Kingdom of God Became Christianity (New York: Random House, 1986) pp. 110, 118; Ulrich Wilckens, Resurrection translated A. M. Stewart (Edinburgh: Saint Andrew, 1977) p. 2; Hans Grass, Ostergeschen und Osterberichte, Second Edition (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 1962) p. 96; Grass favors the origin in Damascus.
Lorenzen, Thorwald. Resurrection, Discipleship, Justice: Affirming the Resurrection of Jesus Christ Today. Macon, Georgia: Smyth & Helwys, 2003, p. 13.pp3-4
Ignatius makes many passing references, but two extended discussions are found in the Letter to the Trallians(英语:Letter to the Trallians) and the Letter to the Smyrnaeans(英语:Letter to the Smyrnaeans).
Augustine and the Catechumenate by William Harmless 1995 ISBN 0-8146-6132-7 page 131。
耶稣复活Augustine De doctrina Christiana by Saint Augustine, R. P. H. Green 1996 ISBN 0-19-826334-1 pag.e 115
Lorenzen, Thorwald. Resurrection, Discipleship, Justice: Affirming the Resurrection of Jesus Christ Today. Macon, Georgia: Smyth & Helwys, 2003, p. 13.
Kurt Rudolph, Gnosis: The Nature & History of Gnosticism, page 190 (T & T Clark Ltd, 1970, second and expanded edition, 1980; 1998). ISBN 0-567-08640-2
Michael J. Cook, "Jewish Perspectives on Jesus", in Delbert Burkett (editor), The Blackwell Companion to Jesus, pages 221–223 (Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2011). ISBN 978-1-4051-9362-7; Gary R. Habermas, The Historical Jesus: Ancient Evidence for the Life of Christ, page 205 (Thomas Nelson, Inc., 2008). ISBN 0-89900-732-5
Van Voorst, Robert E (2000). Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence WmB Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 0-8028-4368-9 page 128
Michael J. Cook Jewish Perspectives on Jesus Chapter 14 in the "The Blackwell Companion to Jesus" edited by Delbert Burkett 2011 ISBN 978-1-4443-2794-6