至1088年，欧洲第一所大学（博洛尼亚大学）已成立，起初主要是培养书记人员。对拉丁语翻译的需求增多起来（例如这时出现了托莱多翻译院）；西欧人开始收集各种文献，不但收集以拉丁文写成的，还收集从希腊语、阿拉伯语、希伯来语翻译成拉丁文的。海什木《光学之书（英语：Book of Optics）》的手抄副本至迟到1240年以前也已经传遍欧洲[80]:Intro. p. xx，这从威特羅的《透视（英语：Perspectiva）》一书将其整合在内即可看出。阿维森纳的《医典（英语：The Canon of Medicine）》也被译成拉丁语[81]。尤其重要的是，罗马天主教学者开始觅求保存于智慧之家及拜占庭帝国的亚里士多德、托勒密[h]以及欧几里得等人的著作[82]。古典文献的传入引起了12世纪的文艺复兴，以及作为天主教与亚里士多德主义的一种综合体的经院哲学在西欧的兴盛，西欧自此成为科学的一个新的地理中心。在这一时期，实验被理解为一个细致的过程，其中包含观察、描述和分类[83]。罗吉尔·培根是这个时代的著名科学家之一。经院哲学强烈专注于启示和辩证推理，在接下来的几百年中渐渐变得不受欢迎；而与此同时，炼金术对于包含了直接观察和一丝不苟的记录的实验之专注正慢慢变得越来越重要。
作为启蒙时代的先导，艾萨克·牛顿和戈特弗里德·莱布尼茨成功建立了一种如今称为经典力学的新型物理学，这门学问可以被实验验证，可以用数学解释。莱布尼茨亦从亚里士多德物理学借用了一些术语，然而是在新的、非目的论的意义上使用，如“能量”和“势能”（亚里士多德的实现(energeia)与潜能(potentia)（英语：actuality and potentiality）之近代版）。这体现出对客体的观念之转变：曾被亚里士多德指出具备特定的、可以实现的内禀目标的客体，如今被认为没有什么内禀目标。以弗朗西斯·培根的方式，莱布尼茨假定，所有不同类型的事物皆遵照相同的自然法则运行，而并不拥有个个不同的形式因或目的因[96]。也正是在这个时期，“科学”这个词被越来越经常的用以指代对某种类型的知识的某种类型的探求，特别是对自然知识的探求，这就与古老的“自然哲学”这个词的涵义逐渐趋近了。
在论述非原创观点或引用他人成果时，需要注明资料来源，以方便考证与查阅。现代学术服务机构普遍使用计算机数据库储存与检索文献。1665年1月，世界上第一个人文类学术期刊《学者周刊》（Journal des Sçavans）创刊。同年3月，第一个理工类研究杂志《自然科学会报》创刊。此后，学术类期刊数量逐步增多。1981年时，曾有人估计当时的全球的学术期刊总数已达11500份。[132]仅与生命科学有关的学术杂志，在美国国家医学图书馆中就已列举出5千份。虽涵盖39种语言，但其中九成是英文杂志。[133]一般人文学科在需要引用文献时，一般需多列几项参考资料。对于理工学科而言，《华盛顿邮报》文章称，“鉴于中国国内学术抄袭与造假的现象较多[134][135]，在引用国内文献时，一般也需多列几项参考资料”。少数行业精英有时在发表刊物或专著时，因几乎均为原创内容，即使不写参考资料也能顺利发表，例如费曼等。目前的学术期刊广泛采用同行评审的方式来履行学术质量把关。但同行评审机制不能完全防止学术造假的发生。[136]在知名杂志发表论文时，同行评审会更加严格。不过同行评审非常严格的《科学》和《自然》等杂志也有可能出现论文造假事件，21世纪初比较知名的学术造假案例有韩国科学家黄禹锡造假事件与日本科学家小保方晴子造假事件。评价学术期刊影响力的常见参考标准之一是看其影响指數(IF)的大小。影响指数高的期刊会更引人关注。过于强调影响指数的作用则是一种迷信的行为。另外，影响指数评价的是期刊在一段时期内所有论文的平均影响力，而有些人误把影响指数当作了判断特定论文及其投稿人的水平标准。[137]在知名期刊发表论文的研究者更易获得更多的科研经费。由于知名期刊的关注度更高，所以时间有限的人会优先阅览知名期刊，长此以往，在知名期刊投稿的作者的被引用几率会越来越大，而在不知名期刊投稿的作者的被引用几率会越来越小，造成评价标准越来越不公平的恶性循环。[138]影响指数的提出者尤金·嘎菲德（英语：Eugene Garfield）也指出同一期刊中不同文章的水平是不一样的，不能一概而论，更不该作为评价个人能力的标准。[139]一种变通的应对方法是在发表论文时先尝试给比自己预期稍好一些的杂志投稿。2005年，物理学家乔治·希尔施（英语：Jorge E. Hirsch）提出了用于评价物理学家个人研究能力的H指数。
“如果一个人以所有人都能明白的口气谈论问题，那不难得知这肯定是某种深奥的哲学（意即“反正不是科学”）。但是，我打算讲得更明确一些，我想让大家以一种更诚实而非模棱两可的方式理解我的意思。” ("A person talks in such generalities that everyone can understand him and it's considered to be some deep philosophy. However, I would like to be very rather more special and I would like to be understood in an honest way, rather than in a vague way.)
"The historian ... requires a very broad definition of "science" – one that ... will help us to understand the modern scientific enterprise. We need to be broad and inclusive, rather than narrow and exclusive ... and we should expect that the farther back we go [in time] the broader we will need to be." — (Lindberg 2007，第3頁) harv error: multiple targets (7×): CITEREFLindberg2007 (help), which further cites Pingree, David. Hellenophilia versus the History of Science. Isis. December 1992, 4 (4): 554–63. Bibcode:1992Isis...83..554P. JSTOR 234257. doi:10.1086/356288.
海什木能够读到欧几里得与托勒密的光学书，这显示在其已佚著作的标题中：《本书总结了分别由欧几里得和托勒密所著的两本光学书，并补全了托勒密的书所缺失的第一讲中的概念》。出处：Ibn Abi Usaibia（英语：Ibn Abi Usaibia）的目录，引自(Smith 2001) harv error: multiple targets (4×): CITEREFSmith2001 (help):91(vol .1), p. xv
"[Ibn al-Haytham] followed Ptolemy's bridge building ... into a grand synthesis of light and vision. Part of his effort consisted in devising ranges of experiments, of a kind probed before but now undertaken on larger scale."— Cohen 2010，第59頁
其译者克雷莫纳的杰拉德(Gerard of Cremona, 约1114–1187)着迷于《至大论》，便来至托莱多，因为他知道在那里可以找到《至大论》的阿拉伯语文本。他在那里见到了所有种类的阿拉伯语书籍；他学习阿拉伯语，以将这些书籍译成拉丁文，因为他意识到“拉丁语文献之贫乏”。——引自Burnett, Charles. The Coherence of the Arabic-Latin Translation Program in Toledo in the Twelfth Century. Science in Context. 2002, 14: 249–88. doi:10.1017/S0269889701000096.
Kepler, Johannes (1604) Ad Vitellionem paralipomena, quibus astronomiae pars opticae traditur (Supplements to Witelo, in which the optical part of astronomy is treated) as cited in Smith, A. Mark. What Is the History of Medieval Optics Really about?. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 1 January 2004, 148 (2): 180–94. JSTOR 1558283. PMID 15338543.
The full title translation is from p. 60 of James R. Voelkel (2001) Johannes Kepler and the New Astronomy Oxford University Press. 开普勒是在1600年7月10日于格拉茨观测了日偏食之后想到要做这个实验的。他使用第谷·布拉赫的观察手段，也就是把太阳的像通过一个针孔投影到一张纸上，而不是直接对着太阳看。他不同意布拉赫关于日全食不可能发生的结论，因为历史上有过日全食的记录；而是根据这次观测推论，孔的口径决定成像的锐度（孔越大，像越精确——这个事实如今对光学系统设计来说很基本）。Voelkel, p. 61, 注意到开普勒的实验第一次正确的描述了视觉和眼睛，因为开普勒意识到，若要对天文观测作精确的著述，就不能对眼睛置之不论。
Principe, Lawrence M. Introduction. Scientific Revolution: A Very Short Introduction First. New York, New York: Oxford University Press. 2011: 1–3. ISBN 978-0-199-56741-6.
Lindberg, David C. Conceptions of the Scientific Revolution from Baker to Butterfield: A preliminary sketch. David C. Lindberg; Robert S. Westman (编). Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution First. Chicago, Illinois: Cambridge University Press. 1990: 1–26. ISBN 978-0-521-34262-9.
Del Soldato, Eva. Zalta, Edward N. , 编. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Fall 2016. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. 2016 [2019-05-16]. （原始内容存档于2019-12-11）.
Cahan, David (编). From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. 2003. ISBN 978-0-226-08928-7.
Lightman, Bernard. 13. Science and the Public. Shank, Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter (编). Wrestling with Nature : From Omens to Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 2011: 367. ISBN 978-0226317830.
Harrison, Peter (2015). The Territories of Science and Religion. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 164–165. ISBN 978-0-226-18451-7. The changing character of those engaged in scientific endeavors was matched by a new nomenclature for their endeavors. The most conspicuous marker of this change was the replacement of "natural philosophy" by "natural science". In 1800 few had spoken of the "natural sciences" but by 1880, this expression had overtaken the traditional label "natural philosophy". The persistence of "natural philosophy" in the twentieth century is owing largely to historical references to a past practice (see figure 11). As should now be apparent, this was not simply the substitution of one term by another, but involved the jettisoning of a range of personal qualities relating to the conduct of philosophy and the living of the philosophical life.
Bunge, Mario. The Scientific Approach. Philosophy of Science: Volume 1, From Problem to Theory 1 revised. New York, New York: Routledge. 1998: 3–50. ISBN 978-0-765-80413-6.
Fetzer, James H. Computer reliability and public policy: Limits of knowledge of computer-based systems. Computers and Cognition: Why Minds are not Machines 1st. Newcastle, United Kingdom: Kluwer Academic Publishers. 2013: 271–308. ISBN 978-1-443-81946-6.
Rochberg, Francesca. Ch.1 Natural Knowledge in Ancient Mesopotamia. Shank, Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter (编). Wrestling with Nature : From Omens to Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 2011: 9. ISBN 978-0226317830.
Lehoux, Daryn. 2. Natural Knowledge in the Classical World. Shank, Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter (编). Wrestling with Nature : From Omens to Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 2011: 39. ISBN 978-0226317830.
"Progress or Return" in An Introduction to Political Philosophy: Ten Essays by Leo Strauss (Expanded version of Political Philosophy: Six Essays by Leo Strauss, 1975.) Ed. Hilail Gilden. Detroit: Wayne State UP, 1989.
Smith, A. Mark, What is the History of Medieval Optics Really About?, Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, June 2004, 148 (2): 180–94, JSTOR 1558283, PMID 15338543
Wildberg, Christian. Zalta, Edward N. , 编. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. May 1, 2018 [2019-05-04]. （原始内容存档于2019-08-22） –通过Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Klein-Frank, F. Al-Kindi. In Leaman, O & Nasr, H (2001). History of Islamic Philosophy. London: Routledge. p. 165. Felix Klein-Frank (2001) Al-Kindi, pp. 166–67. In Oliver Leaman & Hossein Nasr. History of Islamic Philosophy. London: Routledge.
Toomer, G.J. Reviewed work: Ibn al-Haythams Weg zur Physik, Matthias Schramm. Isis. 1964, 55 (4): 463–65. JSTOR 228328. See p. 464: "Schramm sums up [Ibn Al-Haytham's] achievement in the development of scientific method.", p. 465: "Schramm has demonstrated .. beyond any dispute that Ibn al-Haytham is a major figure in the Islamic scientific tradition, particularly in the creation of experimental techniques." p. 465: "only when the influence of ibn al-Haytam and others on the mainstream of later medieval physical writings has been seriously investigated can Schramm's claim that ibn al-Haytam was the true founder of modern physics be evaluated."
Smith, A. Mark. Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's "De aspectibus", the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's "Kitāb al-Manāẓir": Volume One. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. 2001, 91 (4): i–337. JSTOR 3657358.
Goldstein, Bernard R. Copernicus and the Origin of his Heliocentric System. Journal for the History of Astronomy. 2016, 33 (3): 219–35. doi:10.1177/002182860203300301.
Cohen, Floris. How modern science came into the world. Four civilizations, one 17th-century breakthrough Second. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. 2010. ISBN 9789089642394.
Ross, Sydney. Scientist: The story of a word. Annals of Science（英语：Annals of Science）. 1962, 18 (2): 65–85. doi:10.1080/00033796200202722. 使用|accessdate=需要含有|url= (帮助) 确切说来，Whewell于1834年提到创造“科学家”这个词的人时只说那是“一位聪明的绅士”。Ross加了一条注释，说这个“某聪明的绅士”就是Whewell自己，但未给出此断言的理由。Ross 1962, p. 72.
Rashid, S. Tamir; Alexander, Graeme J.M. Induced pluripotent stem cells: from Nobel Prizes to clinical applications. Journal of Hepatology. March 2013, 58 (3): 625–629. ISSN 1600-0641. PMID 23131523. doi:10.1016/j.jhep.2012.10.026.
Mujumdar, Anshu Gupta; Singh, Tejinder. Cognitive science and the connection between physics and mathematics. Anthony Aguirre; Brendan Foster (编). Trick or Truth?: The Mysterious Connection Between Physics and Mathematics. The Frontiers Collection 1st. Switzerland: SpringerNature. 2016: 201–218. ISBN 978-3-319-27494-2.
Oglivie, Brian W. Introduction. The Science of Describing: Natural History in Renaissance Europe Paperback. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. 2008: 1–24. ISBN 978-0-226-62088-6.
C.S. Peirce (July 1879) "Note on the Progress of Experiments for Comparing a Wave-length with a Metre" American Journal of Science, as referenced by Crease 2011，第203頁 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFCrease2011 (help)
di Francia 1976，第13頁: "The amazing point is that for the first time since the discovery of mathematics, a method has been introduced, the results of which have an intersubjective value!" (Author's punctuation)
di Francia 1976，第4–5頁: "One learns in a laboratory; one learns how to make experiments only by experimenting, and one learns how to work with his hands only by using them. The first and fundamental form of experimentation in physics is to teach young people to work with their hands. Then they should be taken into a laboratory and and taught to work with measuring instruments — each student carrying out real experiments in physics. This form of teaching is indispensable and cannot be read in a book."
理查·费曼. The Feynman Lectures on Physics [费曼物理学讲义] 卷1. 艾迪生韦斯利. 1999. ISBN 978-0201021165. And the usual way of dealing with quantum mechanics makes that subject almost unavailable for the great majority of students because they have to take so long to learn it. Yet, in its real applications—especially in its more complex applications, such as in electrical engineering and chemistry—the full machinery of the differential equation approach is not actually used.
原文为“This is the key of modern science and is the beginning of the true understanding of nature. This idea. That to look at the things, to record the details, and to hope that in the information thus obtained, may lie a clue to one or another of a possible theoretical interpretation...The next question was — what makes planets go around the sun? At the time of Kepler some people answered this problem by saying that there were angels behind them beating their wings and pushing the planets around an orbit. As you will see, the answer is not very far from the truth. The only difference is that the angels sit in a different direction and their wings push inward.”具体出处详见其英文维基语录。
原话为“It can scarcely be denied that the supreme goal of all theory is to make the irreducible basic elements as simple and as few as possible without having to surrender the adequate representation of a single datum of experience.”常简作“Everything should be made as simple as possible, but no simpler.”具体出处详见其英文维基语录。
Fred Barbash. Major publisher retracts 43 scientific papers amid wider fake peer-review scandal. 华盛顿邮报. 2015年3月27日 [2016年1月6日]. （原始内容存档于2015年12月30日）. But Jigisha Patel, associate editorial director for research integrity at BioMed Central, said it’s not 'a China problem. We get a lot of robust research of China. We see this as a broader problem of how scientists are judged.'
Eusocial climbers(PDF). E.O. Wilson Foundation. [3 September 2018]. （原始内容存档(PDF)于2019-04-27）. But he’s not a scientist, he’s never done scientific research. My definition of a scientist is that you can complete the following sentence: ‘he or she has shown that...’,” Wilson says.
Our definition of a scientist. Science Council. [7 September 2018]. （原始内容存档于2019-08-23）. A scientist is someone who systematically gathers and uses research and evidence, making a hypothesis and testing it, to gain and share understanding and knowledge.
Spanier, Bonnie. From Molecules to Brains, Normal Science Supports Sexist Beliefs about Difference. Im/partial Science: Gender Identity in Molecular Biology. Indiana University Press. 1995. ISBN 9780253209689.
Rosser, Sue V. Breaking into the Lab: Engineering Progress for Women in Science. New York: New York University Press. 2012-03-12: 7. ISBN 978-0-8147-7645-2.
Goulden, Mark; Frasch, Karie; Mason, Mary Ann. Staying Competitive: Patching America's Leaky Pipeline in the Sciences. University of Berkeley Law. 2009.
原文为“I do not believe that science can disprove the existence of God; I think that is impossible. And if it is impossible, is not a belief in science and in a God – an ordinary God of religion — a consistent possibility? Yes, it is consistent. Despite the fact that I said that more than half of the scientists don't believe in God, many scientists do believe in both science and God, in a perfectly consistent way. But this consistency, although possible, is not easy to attain...”摘自费曼《科学与宗教的关系》
原文为“I would like to remark, in passing, since the word "atheism" is so closely connected with "communism," that the communist views are the antithesis of the scientific, in the sense that in communism the answers are given to all the questions – political questions as well as moral ones – without discussion and without doubt. The scientific viewpoint is the exact opposite of this; that is, all questions must be doubted and discussed; we must argue everything out – observe things, check them, and so change them. The democratic government is much closer to this idea, because there is discussion and a chance of modification. One doesn't launch the ship in a definite direction. It is true that if you have a tyranny of ideas, so that you know exactly what has to be true, you act very decisively, and it looks good – for a while. But soon the ship is heading in the wrong direction, and no one can modify the direction any more. So the uncertainties of life in a democracy are, I think, much more consistent with science.”摘自费曼《科学与宗教的关系》
di Francia, Giuliano Toraldo. The Investigation of the Physical World. Originally published in Italian as L'Indagine del Mondo Fisico by Giulio Einaudi editore 1976; first published in English by Cambridge University Press 1981. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1976. ISBN 978-0-521-29925-1.
Smith, A. Mark. 写于费城. Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's De Aspectibus, the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's Kitāb al-Manāẓir, 2 vols. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 91. 费城: 美國哲學會. 2001. ISBN 978-0-87169-914-5. OCLC 47168716. doi:10.2307/3657358. |issue=被忽略 (帮助)
Smith, A. Mark. Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's "De aspectibus", the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's "Kitāb al-Manāẓir": Volume One. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. 2001, 91 (4): i–337. JSTOR 3657358.
Smith, A. Mark. Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition, with English Translation and Commentary, of the First Three Books of Alhacen's "De aspectibus", the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytham's "Kitāb al-Manāẓir": Volume Two. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. 2001, 91 (5): 339–819. JSTOR 3657357.
Stanovich, Keith E. How to Think Straight About Psychology. Boston: Pearson Education. 2007. ISBN 978-0-205-68590-5.
Ziman, John. Reliable knowledge: An exploration of the grounds for belief in science. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1978. ISBN 978-0-521-22087-3.
Burguete, Maria, and Lam, Lui, eds.(2014). All About Science: Philosophy, History, Sociology & Communication. World Scientific: Singapore. ISBN978-981-4472-92-0
Cole, K. C., Things your teacher never told you about science: Nine shocking revelationsNewsday, 長島, 纽约, March 23, 1986, pp. 21+
Feynman, Richard P. Robbins, Jeffrey , 编. The Pleasure of Finding Things Out: The Best Short Works of Richard P. Feynman [发现的快乐]. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Perseus Books Group. 1999. ISBN 978-0-465-02395-0. OCLC 181597764.
