不過,人們往往都不加區分和交替使用沙里亞與斐格海兩個詞語[16]。學者巴薩姆·蒂比(阿拉伯语:بسام طيبي)認為另一位著名學者約翰·凱爾塞(英语:John Kelsay)也混淆了兩者,指出他錯誤地把真主啟示的沙里亞與人類的理智推論混為一談[17]。埃及學者艾哈邁德·卡邁勒·阿布·馬吉德(埃及阿拉伯文:احمد كمال ابو المجد)強調兩者的分別,指出沙里亞是「真主和先知制定的條文,管制人們的行為,出處是《古蘭經》和聖行」,而「斐格海是以沙里亞為基礎而開展的一系列學問,以探索條文的深意,加以解釋,並在沒有明文說明的情況下運用類比,以惠及人們的福祉」。他又指出,無法區分兩者會造成曲解,這些曲解的想法會危及社群[18]。
學者伯納德·韋斯(英语:Bernard G. Weiss)解釋,沙里亞是立法的產物,體現真主的意志,而斐格海則牽涉法律的理解,是以人類的主觀意志為依歸。不過,他表示這樣的分野並不能說明沙里亞完全是宗教啟示的直接產物。他稱「儘管真主是伊斯蘭教法的出處,但實際的立法行為卻是人類所為,意味這是人類所理解的真主之法。這些法律並非在天國預定並降示給凡間,斐格海就是人類所理解的法律,它才是社會規範的法律」[19]。
穆斯林對一些信仰習俗上的瑣碎事宜欠缺共識,使穆斯林社群分成各個派系[22]。此外,卡迪的人數越來越多和變得更規範,儘管他們同樣是穆斯林,但他們來自伊斯蘭世界不同的地方,於是各自發展出不同的古典法派,當中的一些法派論述宗教禮典的細節,另一些法派則演變出適合當地情況的特殊處理手法。各地學者在當時難以互相交流,不同法派之間的分歧難以避免[23]。當時易卜拉欣·納哈伊(阿拉伯语:إبراهيم بن يزيد النخعي)等學者認為伊斯蘭教法是有法律理由(英语:Ratio decidendi),其原則和論證皆由《古蘭經》和聖行推導而出,附屬法規可通過這樣的論證來形成。他們認為稱職的法學家可以看到這些法律背景的推論,從而領悟到其立法原意。他們又稱法典可以論述的文字是有限,但案例是無限,因此有必要確立和理解《古蘭經》、聖行衍生法律的根本思想,才能滿足立法所需[24]。
伊斯蘭教學者伊格納茲·戈德齊赫(匈牙利语:Goldziher Ignác)認為伊斯蘭教法學的發展在8世紀才真正開始,他指出這是因為法學典籍有系統的編纂在這個時候才能以可以保存下來的形式記載。根據後來的文獻,朱萊傑和賽義德·伊本·阿比·阿魯芭(阿拉伯语:سعيد بن أبي عروبة)率先把他們的法律著作分章分節編寫成書。戈德齊赫認為它們並不只是聖訓書,而是最先「運用了聖行當中合適的素材,並根據種類把法律整理而寫成」的法學典籍[31]。
踏入10世紀,編撰法學著作的用語出現了驚人的變化,學者開始使用伊斯蘭法學原理專用的新詞,他們被專門稱之為伊斯蘭法學原理的作者。他們的著作所採用的標題表明這是一門獨立和重要的學問[38]。諸如伊赫提拉弗(法律意見差異)、賈達爾(法理辯證)、塔里卡(聖訓注解)等術語的使用頻率越來越高[39]。這個世紀的法學家仔細研究過往承傳下來的法律知識,又撰寫著作推動法學派別的理論發展。除了蘇萊傑,奧馬爾·伊本·侯賽因·希拉吉(阿拉伯语:عمر بن الحسين الخرقي)、烏拜爾·阿拉·伊本·哈桑·卡希和伊本·傑拉卜都是這時較有名的法學家,他們在特定的框架下推導法學理論[40]。
隨著13世紀蒙古人的入侵和14世紀爆發的瘟疫,法學家變得稀缺,只要少數學者可以運用基本的法學原則來處理日常需要面對的法律問題[51]。此時有更多的法學典籍相對地接納由沒有穆智台希德資格的學者代替過往的法學家發佈伊斯蘭教令,當時的法學家西拉傑丁·烏爾麥維(波斯語:سراجالدین محمود ارموی)解釋那是因為「其時欠缺獲共識承認的穆智台希德」。另一位法學家卡迪·巴達維(波斯語:ناصرالدین عبدالله بیضاوی)亦稱當時仍存的穆智台希德不多,因此有必要跟從已去世的穆智台希德發佈的教令[52]。
法學研究在18世紀變得熱門,又稱法基赫的伊斯蘭教法學專家成為格外突出的伊斯蘭教學者[59]。遜尼派伊斯蘭教開始有推動改革的聲音,試圖復興伊斯蘭思想和生活方式的多元化,滿足現代的需要[60]。學者沙阿·瓦利烏拉·德拉維(阿拉伯语:شاه ولي الله الدهلوي)明確主張運用伊智提哈德,建議面臨法學問題的穆斯林可以隨意在四大法學派別裡尋找答案,是一種「跨學派的折衷主義」。近代學者約翰內斯·馬里納斯·西蒙·貝隆(德语:Johannes Marinus Simon Baljon (Theologe))認為德拉維的論點是「每個年代都有無數獨特的問題」,以證明有需要採納獨立論證的手段來解決[61]。
20世紀的穆斯林移民難以在西方國家遵行伊斯蘭教法,這種新的特殊情況激發學者提倡開拓「少數族裔法學(阿拉伯语:فقه الأقليات)」,以根據他們在新家園的特徵和地位而構建指導原則[68]。關於穆斯林少數族裔在非穆斯林國家面對的困難,優素福·卡熱達維及塔哈·賈比爾·阿勒瓦尼(阿拉伯语:طه جابر العلواني)是首批直接加以論述的其中一些學者,兩人都不約而同地提出了學說,讓穆斯林少數族裔就如何遵行伊斯蘭教法方面有法可依[69]。
首要原則是真主所創之事物是為了讓人類運用,因此這些事物都獲得允許。除非有《古蘭經》或聖訓的明文指明禁止,否則就不算是哈拉姆[89]。其次,法學家往往會採用「以我的看法來看,這是更正確的」之類的語句來表達他們的意見,表明他們並非創造具約束力的法律,而是發表試圖令人信服的權威觀點[90]。一些令行禁止的事例可以在宗教經文裡找到明確的答案,例如崇拜真主(阿拉伯语:العبادة في الإسلام)的必要、禁止通奸和近親婚姻等,不需要進一步的解構。另一些裁定則需要通過司法推論來形成,可能是基於對特定經文的解讀或法律論證而得出,這類裁定不得抵觸經文[91]。
法學家阿布·扎伊德·代布西(阿拉伯语:أبو زيد الدبوسي)認為《古蘭經》裡只有少數經文被歸類為「明確」和「含糊」,大部分經文都不屬於這兩個類別。他指出《古蘭經》裡的大部分經文都「需要注解或詮釋」,因應這些經文的清晰程度,需要詮釋的程度都各有不同[96]。解讀《古蘭經》經文有多種方法,最可靠的方式是用《古蘭經》經文去解釋另一些經文,其次是以聖行來解釋,亦即先知穆罕默德的解釋,其他方式包括利用聖伴、先知同伴追隨者的言論及伊智提哈德[97]。
法學家賽義夫丁·阿米迪(阿拉伯语:سيف الدين الآمدي)及穆罕默德·舒卡尼(阿拉伯语:محمد الشوكاني)把伊智提哈德定義為法學家致力於根據法源的詳細證據盡可能推斷出伊斯蘭教法的規律[100]。這是一種嚴謹的司法推論,用於《古蘭經》和聖行都找不到答案或此前的法律學者沒有就某個議題發表見解,以確定某事是否符合伊斯蘭教法。早期的學說把運用伊智提哈德的權力局限在那些具備必要教育背景及了解這種複雜法律問題的穆智台希德身上,但19世紀的賈邁勒丁·阿富汗尼、阿布都等人提出新概念,指伊智提哈德是對真理的獨立研判,不局限於穆智台希德[101]。
現代穆斯林哲學家穆罕默德·伊克巴勒認為集體行使伊智提哈德的伊制瑪爾應該是「穩定的立法機制」,把個別學者行使伊智提哈德的權力移交給穆斯林立法機關是伊制瑪爾在現代唯一可以實現的形式[109]。學者法茲勒·拉赫曼·馬利克(烏爾都語:فضل الرحمن ملک)認為沙斐儀改變和破壞了伊制瑪爾與伊智提哈德的天然關係,並指他把共識描述為沒有異議的餘地[110]。另一位現代學者馬哈茂德·沙爾圖特(阿拉伯语:محمود شلتوت)認為伊制瑪爾牽涉伊智提哈德,容許不同意見的湧現是形成共識的先決條件[111]。
歐爾夫是指在伊斯蘭教法法源和法則的框架下承認盛行的傳統做法。學者諾埃爾·庫爾森(維基數據所列:Q18530514)指出伊斯蘭教承認傳統是一種「有補充價值的法律原則」[125]。儘管結婚時新郎向新娘一方索取財物、剝奪女兒的繼承權、利用抵押財產獲利等做法有違伊斯蘭教法的具體指令和精神而遭到禁止,但哈乃斐派學者阿布·優素福(阿拉伯语:أبو يوسف)及布爾漢丁·馬爾吉納尼(阿拉伯语:برهان الدين المرغيناني)認為即使與經文實證有抵觸,傳統做法依然合法[126][127]。
卡迪(法官)源自伊斯蘭教出現之前解決紛爭的仲裁人(阿拉伯语:الحكم (أسماء الله الحسنى)),穆罕默德在麥地那亦擔任過這個角色。隨著伊斯蘭帝國的擴張,倭馬亞王朝的統治者革新政治,創建新的官職掌管司法,當中包括了任命法官的制度[132]。卡迪原本是地方上的統治者由精通法學的學者當中挑選,後來則由哈里發直接挑選,哈里發通過卡迪來行使司法權。阿拔斯王朝的第五代哈里發哈倫·拉希德創建首席卡迪一職,負責任命地方法官[133]。
如果所需的法學原則在過往沒有得到確立,卡迪在裁定訴訟時應用伊智提哈德可以立下先例,以便在具體案例裡提供公正、神聖的裁決[138]。奧斯曼帝國時期的法學家海爾丁·拉姆利(阿拉伯语:خير الدين الرملي)稱「卡迪自主從法源萃取的法規是有效」,在有分歧和爭議的情況下,任何卡迪可以根據自身的判斷作出決定[139]。學者米麗亞姆·赫克斯特(Miriam Hoexter)稱卡迪在法律的最前線任職,她設想他們在裁定時對事實和法規應用的修訂都會被錄入法律典籍,哈拉格認為這對法學原理的發展和演變有舉足輕重的影響[140]。
穆夫提獲得穆斯林社群的共識,被認為具備豐富的法學知識和道德水平,人們會向他們提出具體的法律問題,徵求他們的法學意見和他們對伊斯蘭教法的詮釋。穆夫提會加以回應,給出法學意見[143]。一些著名穆夫提所寫的伊斯蘭教令被輯錄成書,如塔基丁·蘇卜基(阿拉伯语:تقي الدين السبكي)、埃布蘇德·埃芬迪(土耳其語:Ebussuud Efendi)等。這些書籍提供了大量的案例,用作參考比對,哈拉格稱「這些伊斯蘭教令叢書十分重要,法學學派理論因而得以改變和發展」[144]。
在伊斯蘭教法學裡,刑事法律分為三類,分別是《古蘭經》擬定的罪行(侯杜德(阿拉伯语:الحدود في الشريعة الإسلامية))、對人身的侵害(基沙斯)及由司法機關裁量懲治的危害公眾罪行(塔濟爾(阿拉伯语:تعزير))。對於侯杜德和基沙斯,法學典籍有詳盡細緻的討論,確立了一些原則,例如未成年人和心智失常的人沒有法律責任、講求嚴格的證據及疑罪從無(阿拉伯语:شبهة)[166]。可是法學典籍沒有詳細探討塔濟爾,因此法官及行政管理機關在執行這類法律上有更大的自由度[167]。
馬立克派由麥地那的馬利克·阿本·阿納斯創立,所以又被稱為麥地那派,是中世紀西班牙及當今北非、西亞及中亞許多地區盛行的學派[182]。馬立克派強調利用聖訓解釋法理,阿納斯搜集了麥地那法官在過去的判例,輯錄成《伊瑪目馬立克聖訓集》。這部聖訓集整理了聖行和伊制瑪爾的步驟,被近代學者沙阿·瓦利烏拉·德赫拉維(阿拉伯语:شاه ولي الله الدهلوي)視為繼《古蘭經》後最權威的典籍[183][184]。
根據罕百里派學者伊本·卡伊姆·嘉伍茲亞(阿拉伯语:ابن قيم الجوزية),除了基於《古蘭經》和聖行,罕百里派的法學原則亦會採納先知同伴的一致意見,只有在突發情況下才會採用格雅斯,因此他們寧願採信可靠性較低的聖訓[196]。不過,伊本·泰米葉在他的著作裡指出一些罕百里派學者接納伊斯提斯拉赫,如納傑姆丁·圖菲(阿拉伯语:نجم الدين الطوفي)稱「如果經訓與共識有違顧及公眾利益的原則,那麼應優先考慮公眾利益」[197][198]。
歷史上有一些學派並沒有追隨者,亦有一些已消失的學派比現存的遜尼派四大法學學派更古老,但他們的觀點出現在遜尼派來源裡[203]。他們的法理和學說被現存的學派取代,難以從現存的史料重建。學術界在研究這些已消失的學派時主要集中在三位法學家身上,他們分別是阿卜杜·拉曼·奧扎伊(阿拉伯语:عبد الرحمن الأوزاعي)、達烏德·扎希里(阿拉伯语:داود الظاهري)及塔巴里[204]。
雖然謝爾曼·傑克遜(英语:Sherman Jackson)等學者認為伊斯蘭教法學原理不能導出或生成伊斯蘭教法,只有驗證法律的功用,而且沒有清晰的證據表明通過法學手法推論出來的法律就是真主之法,但這些法律可以受人接納而成為實際的法律[213][214]。學者魯道夫·彼得斯(英语:Rudolph F. Peters)稱伊斯蘭教法其實就是法學家的法律,法學家通過學術討論獨攬了伊斯蘭教法的立法權。哈拉格亦同意,並稱因為是「法學家的權威使伊斯蘭教法可以延續到千秋萬世」[215]。
鑑於法學家的見解自具權威,他們所獲的地位並非執政者授予,因此學者艾拉·拉皮德斯(英语:Ira M. Lapidus)認為伊斯蘭社會早就有政教分離的概念[216]。伊斯蘭教法與政治實體之間的關係模糊,縱使法官是由國王及統治者任免,但法律主體卻任由他們闡述,他們壟斷了法律的話語權,因此他們的法學見解不受國家權力制約,使法學家可以自由推敲法律學說[217]。
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