马切伊·亨内伯格（Maciej Henneberg，1989）纪录了一个距今8000年的加龙文化老年女性头骨，它与瓦迪哈勒法、现代黑人和澳大利亚土著有密切联系，与北非（Mechta-Afalou（英语：Mechta-Afalou），即古柏柏尔人）或者之后的原始地中海类型（卡普萨文化）的上古石器时代材料有明显不同。头骨具有折中的性质，一方面骨骼纤细，另一方面却拥有较大的牙齿和沉重的下颚骨。[25]2021年S. O. Y. 凯塔的简短报告中也得出了相似的结果，并说明了加龙文化与肯尼亚泰塔人（英语：Taita people）的亲缘关系。[26]
然而，一些学者对这一观点提出了质疑，他们引用了语言学、[50]体质人类学、[51]考古学[52][53][54]和遗传学数据[55][56][57][58][59]，这些数据不支持史前时期来自黎凡特的大规模迁移假说。历史学家威廉·斯蒂布林（William Stiebling）和考古学家苏珊·N·赫尔夫特（Susan N. Helft）认为，这一观点认为古埃及人与努比亚人及其他撒哈拉人是同一原始人口群体，而有一些来自阿拉伯、黎凡特、北非和印欧人的基因输入，这些人在埃及的漫长历史中定居于此。另一方面，斯蒂布林和赫尔夫特承认，北非人群的遗传研究通常表明在新石器时代或更早时期有大量近东人口的涌入。他们还补充说，目前关于古埃及DNA的研究很少，无法解释这些问题。[60]
R. Schild; F. Wendorf. Late Palaeolithic Hunter-Gatherers in the Nile Valley of Nubia and Upper Egypt. E A. A. Garcea (编). South-Eastern Mediterranean Peoples Between 130,000 and 10,000 years ago. Oxbow Books: 89–125. 2014.
Boëtsch, Gilles. Noirs ou blancs : une histoire de l'anthropologie biologique de l'Égypte. Égypte/Monde arabe. 1995-12-31, (24): 113–138. ISSN 1110-5097. doi:10.4000/ema.643（法语）. Falkenburger also notes a great heterogeneity in the measurements taken on 1,800 Egyptian skulls. From indices expressing the shape of the face, nose and orbits, Falkenburger divides the ancient Egyptians into four types - Cro-Magnon type, Negroid type, Mediterranean type and mixed type, resulting from the mixture of the first three.
Zvelebil, M. Hunters in Transition: Mesolithic Societies and the Transition to Farming. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 1986: 5–15, 167–188.
Dokládal, M.; Brožek, J. Physical Anthropology in Czechoslovakia: Recent Developments. Current Anthropology. 1961, 2 (5): 455–477. S2CID 161324951. doi:10.1086/200228.
Zvelebil, M. On the transition to farming in Europe, or what was spreading with the Neolithic: a reply to Ammerman (1989). Antiquity. 1989, 63 (239): 379–383. S2CID 162882505. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00076110.
Smith, P. (2002) The palaeo-biological evidence for admixture between populations in the southern Levant and Egypt in the fourth to third millennia BC. In: Egypt and the Levant: Interrelations from the 4th through the Early 3rd Millennium BC, London–New York: Leicester University Press, 118–128
Keita, S.O.Y. Early Nile Valley Farmers from El-Badari: Aboriginals or "European" Agro-Nostratic Immigrants? Craniometric Affinities Considered With Other Data. Journal of Black Studies. 2005, 36 (2): 191–208. S2CID 144482802. doi:10.1177/0021934704265912.
Shirai, Noriyuki. The Archaeology of the First Farmer-Herders in Egypt: New Insights into the Fayum Epipalaeolithic. Archaeological Studies Leiden University. Leiden University Press. 2010.
"There is no evidence, no archaeological signal, for a mass migration (settler colonization)" into Egypt from southwest Asia at the time of the writing. Core Egyptian culture was well established. A total peopling of Egypt at this time from the Near East would have meant the mass migration of Semitic speakers. The ancient Egyptian language – using the usual academic language taxonomy – is a branch within Afroasiatic with one member (not counting place of origin/urheimat is within Africa, using standard linguistic criteria based on the locale of greatest diversity, deepest branches, and least moves accounting for its five or six branches or sevem, if Ongota is counted".Template:Verify inline Keita, S. O. Y. Ideas about 'Race' in Nile Valley Histories: A Consideration of 'Racial' Paradigms in Recent Presentations on Nile Valley Africa, from 'Black Pharaohs' to Mummy Genomest. Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections. September 2022.
Wengrow, David; Dee, Michael; Foster, Sarah; Stevenson, Alice; Ramsey, Christopher Bronk. Cultural convergence in the Neolithic of the Nile Valley: a prehistoric perspective on Egypt's place in Africa. Antiquity. March 2014, 88 (339): 95–111. ISSN 0003-598X. S2CID 49229774. doi:10.1017/S0003598X00050249（英语）.
"P2 (PN2) marker, within the E haplogroup, connects the predominant Y chromosome lineage found in Africa overall after the modern human left Africa. P2/M215-55 is found from the Horn of Africa up through the Nile Valley and west to the Maghreb, and P2/V38/M2 is predominant in most of infra-Saharan tropical Africa". Shomarka, Keita. Ancient Egyptian 'Origins' and 'Identity'. Ancient Egyptian society: challenging assumptions, exploring approaches. Abingdon, Oxfordshire: Routledge. 2022: 111–122. ISBN 978-0367434632.
"Moreover, the available genetic evidence – relating in particular to the M35/215 Y-chromosome lineage – also accords with just this kind of demographic history. This lineage had its origins broadly in the Horn of Africa and East Africa." Ehret, Christopher. Ancient Africa: A Global History, to 300 CE. Princeton University Press. 20 June 2023: 97. ISBN 978-0-691-24410-5（英语）.
Anselin, Alain H. Egypt in its African context: proceedings of the conference held at the Manchester Museum, University of Manchester, 2-4 October 2009. Oxford: Archaeopress. 2011: 43–54. ISBN 978-1407307602.
Seeher, Jürgen. Ma'adi and Wadi Digla. Bard, Kathryn A. (编). Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. London/New York: Routledge: 455–458. 1999. ISBN 9780415185899.
Williams, Bruce. The Qustul Incense Burner and the Case for a Nubian Origin of Ancient Egyptian Kingship. Celenko, Theodore (编). Egypt in Africa. Indianapolis, Indiana: Indianapolis Museum of Art. 1996: 95–97. ISBN 978-0936260648.
"When Mahalanobis D2 was used,the Naqadan and Badarian Predynastic samples exhibited more similarity to Nubian, Tigrean, and some more southern series than to some mid- to late Dynasticseries from northern Egypt (Mukherjee et al., 1955). The Badarian have been found to be very similar to a Kerma sample (Kushite Sudanese), using both the Penrose statistic (Nutter, 1958) and DFA of males alone (Keita, 1990). Furthermore, Keita considered that Badarian males had a southern modal phenotype, and that together with a Naqada sample, they formed a southern Egyptian cluster as tropical variants together with a sample from Kerma". Zakrzewski, Sonia R. Population continuity or population change: Formation of the ancient Egyptian state. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. April 2007, 132 (4): 501–509. PMID 17295300. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20569（英语）.
"When Mahalanobis D2 was used, the Naqadan and Badarian Predynastic samples exhibited more similarity to Nubian, Tigrean, and some more southern series than to some mid- to late Dynasticseries from northern Egypt (Mukherjee et al., 1955). The Badarian have been found to be very similar to a Kerma sample (Kushite Sudanese), using both the Penrose statistic (Nutter, 1958) and DFA of males alone (Keita, 1990). Furthermore, Keita considered that Badarian males had a southern modal phenotype, and that together with a Naqada sample, they formed a southern Egyptian cluster as tropical variants together with a sample from Kerma". Zakrzewski, Sonia R. Population continuity or population change: Formation of the ancient Egyptian state. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. April 2007, 132 (4): 501–509. PMID 17295300. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20569（英语）.
Lovell, Nancy; Prowse, Tracy. Concordance of cranial and dental morphological traits and evidence for endogamy in ancient Egypt. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. October 1996, 101 (2): 237–246. PMID 8893087. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-8644(199610)101:2<237::AID-AJPA8>3.0.CO;2-Z. Table 3 presents the MMD data for Badari, Qena, and Nubia in addition to Naqada and shows that these samples are all significantly different from each other. ... 1) the Naqada samples are more similar to each other than they are to the samples from the neighbouring Upper Egyptian or Lower Nubian sites and 2) the Naqada samples are more similar to the Lower Nubian protodynastic sample than they are to the geographically more proximate Egyptian samples.
"There is now a sufficient body of evidence from modern studies of skeletal remains to indicate that the ancient Egyptians, especially southern Egyptians, exhibited physical characteristics that are within the range of variation for ancient and modern indigenous peoples of the Sahara and tropical Africa. The distribution of population characteristics seems to follow a clinal pattern from south to north, which may be explained by natural selection as well as gene flow between neighboring populations. In general, the inhabitants of Upper Egypt and Nubia had the greatest biological affinity to people of the Sahara and more southerly areas". Lovell, Nancy C. Egyptians, physical anthropology of. Bard, Kathryn A.; Shubert, Steven Blake (编). Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. London: Routledge: 328–331. 1999. ISBN 0415185890.
Lovell, Nancy C. Egyptians, physical anthropology of(PDF). Bard, Kathryn A.; Shubert, Steven Blake (编). Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt. London: Routledge: 328–331. 1999. ISBN 0415185890.
Malville, J. McKim, Astronomy at Nabta Playa, Egypt, Ruggles, C.L.N. (编), Handbook of Archaeoastronomy and Ethnoastronomy 2, New York: Springer Science+Business Media: 1079–1091, 2015, ISBN 978-1-4614-6140-1
Belmonte, Juan Antonio, Ancient Egypt, Ruggles, Clive; Cotte, Michel (编), Heritage Sites of Astronomy and Archaeoastronomy in the context of the UNESCO World Heritage Convention: A Thematic Study, Paris: International Council on Monuments and Sites/International Astronomical Union: 119–129, 2010, ISBN 978-2-918086-07-9
"Iron beads were worn in Egypt as early as 4000 B.C., but these were of meteoric iron, evidently shaped by the rubbing process used in shaping implements of stone", quoted under the heading "Columbia Encyclopedia: Iron Age" at Iron Age, Answers.com. Also, see History of ferrous metallurgy#Meteoric iron—"Around 4000 BC small items, such as the tips of spears and ornaments, were being fashioned from iron recovered from meteorites" – attributed to R. F. Tylecote, A History of Metallurgy (2nd edition, 1992), p. 3.
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