2，Gehenna。中文翻譯為欣嫩子谷（ גיא בן הינום；古希臘語：γέεννα)），是耶路撒冷的一個谷地。在希伯來聖經中，這裡最初是猶大諸王以火獻祭自己孩子給摩洛克的地方 。從此以後，這個地方便被認為受到了詛咒，常被作為地獄或者煉獄的代名詞。新約中「Gehenna」被描述為一個一「不滅的火」摧毀靈魂和身體的地方（馬太福音10:28；馬可福音9:43）。這個詞在許多英語版本中被翻譯為「地獄」或「地獄之火」。[3]
3，tartarō。希臘動詞「ταρταρῶ（tartarō）」在新約中出現一次（彼得後書2：4），它幾乎總是翻譯成「丟在地獄」之類的短語。有時也翻譯為「Tartarus」；對於這個詞，Holman Christian Standard Bible說道：「Tartarus是一個希臘詞，意思是在地下比Hades更低一層的神懲罰人的場所。」(彼得後書2：4)
The Hay Wagon, shutters.耶羅尼米斯·博斯繪,1515-1549年歐洲基督教中世紀的地獄插圖耶路撒冷欣嫩子谷, 2007
在1910天主教百科全書中，約瑟夫·海姆（Joseph Hontheim）寫道「神學家普遍接受地獄真的在地球存在的觀點。教會關於這個問題並沒有結論；因此，我們可以說地獄是一個確定的地方；但我們不知道在哪裡。」他引用了聖奧古斯丁的觀點，後者認為地獄在地面之下；他又引用了教宗額我略一世的觀點，認為地獄要麼在地上，要麼在地下。[33]而另一方面，天主教神學家漢斯·烏爾斯·馮·巴爾塔薩（Hans Urs von Balthasar，1905-1988）認為，「我們必須看到，地獄不是一個裝滿了人或空蕩蕩的地方，它很可能不是天主創造的，而是在任何情況下，自由的個體選擇了它。」[34]2007年具有出版許可的《青年天主教信仰手冊》也認為，「更準確地說」，天堂和地獄不是地方，而是一種狀態。[35]方濟嘉布遣會神學Berard A. Marthaler也說，「地獄不是一個地方」。[36]
其他天主教徒既不肯定也不否認地獄是一個地方，而將其稱為一個「地方或狀態」。路德維希·奧特（Ludwig Ott）的《天主教教條基礎》認為：「地獄是天主拒絕的人所居住的永恆懲罰的地方或狀態」。[41]羅伯特·福克斯（Robert J. Fox）寫道：「地獄是天主拒絕的人所在的永恆懲罰的地方或狀態，因為這些靈魂拒絕了天主拯救的恩典。」[42]福音派的Norman L. Geisler和Ralph E. MacKenzie解釋羅馬天主教官方教義時說：「地獄是天主拒絕的人所居住的永恆懲罰的地方或狀態。」[43]
雖然普救派在歷史中和當代基督教中是神學上的小團體，但大多持有新教觀點的人（如喬治·麥克唐納，卡爾·巴特，漢斯·烏爾斯·馮·巴爾塔薩，William Barclay，Keith DeRose和Thomas Talbott）都認為，人們在Gehenna服刑完判決後，所有的靈魂與上帝重新和好，進入天堂，或認為，在死亡時，上帝找到了讓所有靈魂悔改的方式，這樣就不用經歷「地獄」的痛苦。這種觀點通常被稱為基督教普救派——它的保守分支更具體地稱為「聖經或三位一體普救派」——並且我們不要將它與一神普救派混淆。（參見英文詞條See universal reconciliation, apocatastasis和the Problem of Hell）
基督科學教會如此定義「地獄」：「凡人的信念；錯誤；欲望；悔恨；仇恨；復仇；罪惡；疾病；死亡；痛苦和自我毀滅；自我施加的痛苦；罪的影響；任何讓人憎惡或虛假的事物 （Science and Health with Key to the Scripture by Mary Baker Eddy, 588: 1-4.）。
耶穌基督後期聖徒教會相信，義人將在「第一次復活」中起來，並在耶穌回來後與耶穌一起生活在地球上。在千年（稱為千紀）後，在靈魂監獄中選擇不接受福音和悔改的人同樣也復活，並得到一個不朽的身體，這稱為「第二次復活」。在這些指定的復活時間中，「死亡和地獄」將把那些在它們裡面的死人交出來，根據他們的作為來審判（啟示錄20:13），這時，除了[毀滅之子]（Sons of perdition）以外，所有人都得到一定的榮耀，保羅將這些榮耀比作太陽、月亮和星的榮耀（哥林多前書15:41）。 耶穌基督後期聖徒教會會解釋道，聖經描述的地獄是「永恆的」或「無盡的」懲罰，這是上帝施加的懲罰，而不是無休止的永久懲罰。摩門教的聖經引用了上帝告訴教會創始人約瑟·斯密的說話：「我是無盡的，我所給出的懲罰是無盡的懲罰，因為無盡的是我的名字。因此，永遠的懲罰是神的懲罰。無盡的懲罰是神的懲罰。」[72]
New Bible Dictionary 3rd ed., IVP, Leicester 1996. Article "Hell", pages 463-464; New Dictionary of Biblical Theology; IVP Leicester 2000, "Hell";Evangelical Alliance Commission on Truth and Unity Among Evangelicals (ACUTE) (2000). The Nature of Hell. Paternoster, London. pp. 42–47.
God himself is both heaven and hell, reward and punishment. All men have been created to see God unceasingly in His uncreated glory. Whether God will be for each man heaven or hell, reward or punishment, depends on man's response to God's love and on man's transformation from the state of selfish and self-centered love, to Godlike love which does not seek its own ends. EMPIRICAL THEOLOGY VERSUS SPECULATIVE THEOLOGY by John S. Romanides part 2 franks_romans_feudalism_and_doctrine.02.htm[永久失效連結]
Thus it is the Church's spiritual teaching that God does not punish man by some material fire or physical torment. God simply reveals Himself in the risen Lord Jesus in such a glorious way that no man can fail to behold His glory. It is the presence of God's splendid glory and love that is the scourge of those who reject its radiant power and light.
... those who find themselves in hell will be chastised by the scourge of love. How cruel and bitter this torment of love will be! For those who understand that they have sinned against love, undergo no greater suffering than those produced by the most fearful tortures. The sorrow which takes hold of the heart, which has sinned against love, is more piercing than any other pain. It is not right to say that the sinners in hell are deprived of the love of God ... But love acts in two ways, as suffering of the reproved, and as joy in the blessed! (St. Isaac of Syria, Mystic Treatises) The Orthodox Church of America website（[//web.archive.org/web/20070704063634/http://www.oca.org/OCchapter.asp?SID=2&ID=208 頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館） [1]]
For those who love the Lord, His Presence will be infinite joy, paradise and eternal life. For those who hate the Lord, the same Presence will be infinite torture, hell and eternal death. The reality for both the saved and the damned will be exactly the same when Christ "comes in glory, and all angels with Him, " so that "God may be all in all." (I Corinthians 15-28) Those who have God as their "all" within this life will finally have divine fulfillment and life. For those whose "all" is themselves and this world, the "all" of God will be their torture, their punishment and their death. And theirs will be "weeping and gnashing of teeth." (Matthew 8:21, et al.) The Son of Man will send His angels and they will gather out of His kingdom all causes of sin and all evil doers, and throw them into the furnace of fire; there men will weep and gnash their teeth. Then the righteous will shine like the sun in the Kingdom of their Father. (Matthew 13:41-43) According to the saints, the "fire" that will consume sinners at the coming of the Kingdom of God is the same "fire" that will shine with splendor in the saints. It is the "fire" of God's love; the "fire" of God Himself who is Love. "For our God is a consuming fire" (Hebrews 12:29) who "dwells in unapproachable light." (I Timothy 6:16) For those who love God and who love all creation in Him, the "consuming fire" of God will be radiant bliss and unspeakable delight. For those who do not love God, and who do not love at all, this same "consuming fire" will be the cause of their "weeping" and their "gnashing of teeth." Thus it is the Church's spiritual teaching that God does not punish man by some material fire or physical torment. God simply reveals Himself in the risen Lord Jesus in such a glorious way that no man can fail to behold His glory. It is the presence of God's splendid glory and love that is the scourge of those who reject its radiant power and light. ... those who find themselves in hell will be chastised by the scourge of love. How cruel and bitter this torment of love will be! For those who understand that they have sinned against love, undergo no greater suffering than those produced by the most fearful tortures. The sorrow which takes hold of the heart, which has sinned against love, is more piercing than any other pain. It is not right to say that the sinners in hell are deprived of the love of God ... But love acts in two ways, as suffering of the reproved, and as joy in the blessed! (St. Isaac of Syria, Mystic Treatises) The Orthodox Church of America website
Man has a malfunctioning or non-functioning noetic faculty in the heart, and it is the task especially of the clergy to apply the cure of unceasing memory of God, otherwise called unceasing prayer or illumination. "Those who have selfless love and are friends of God see God in light—Divine light, while the selfish and impure see God the judge as fire—darkness". [4]Archived 27 December 2011 at the Wayback Machine;"Those who have selfless love and are friends of God see God in light—divine light, while the selfish and impure see God the judge as fire—darkness". Archived 27 December 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Proper preparation for vision of God takes place in two stages: purification, and illumination of the noetic faculty. Without this, it is impossible for man's selfish love to be transformed into selfless love. This transformation takes place during the higher level of the stage of illumination called theoria, literally meaning vision-in this case vision by means of unceasing and uninterrupted memory of God. Those who remain selfish and self-centered with a hardened heart, closed to God's love, will not see the glory of God in this life. However, they will see God's glory eventually, but as an eternal and consuming fire and outer darkness. From FRANKS, ROMANS, FEUDALISM, AND DOCTRINE/Diagnosis and Therapy Father John S. Romanides Diagnosis and Therapy franks_romans_feudalism_and_doctrine.02.htm#s8[永久失效連結]
Singer-Towns, Brian; Claussen, Janet; Vanbrandwijk, Clare (2008). Catholic Faith Handbook for Youth. Saint Mary's Press. p. 421. ISBN 978-0-88489-987-7.
"No cogent reason has been advanced for accepting a metaphorical interpretation in preference to the most natural meaning of the words of Scripture" (Hontheim in Catholic Encyclopedia 1910).
"It is certain from Scripture and tradition that the torments of hell are inflicted in a definite place. But it is uncertain where the place is" Addis & Arnold (eds), "A Catholic Dictionary Containing Some Account of the Doctrine, Discipline, Rites, Ceremonies, Councils, and Religious Orders of the Catholic Church: Part One", p. 404 (1903).
"Hell is traditionally considered a literal place of eternal torture, but the Pope has also described hell as the condition of pain that results from alienation from God, a thing of one's own doing, not an actual place.", Burke, Chauvin, & Miranti, "Religious and spiritual issues in counseling", p. 236 (2003).
"In the common sense of the word 'place', if you were to say 'Hell is not a place', you would be denying that hell exists. Unfortunately, some thought that the Pope, in the statement quoted above, was denying that hell is a place in this sense. He was, of course, doing nothing of the sort. Thus, to return to the Pope's words again, John Paul II must not be misinterpreted when he said 'Rather than [or more than] a place, hell indicates [a] state….' He certainly was not denying that it is a place, but instead was shifting our focus to the real essence of hell—what the term 'hell' truly indicates—the self-chosen separation from God. The 'place' or 'location' of hell is secondary, and considerations of where it is should not deflect us from our most important concerns: what it is, and how to avoid it" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110928085437/http://www.cuf.org/faithfacts/details_view.asp?ffID=69).
"The Green Catechism (1939–62) said: Hell is a place of torments. God made hell to punish the devils or bad angels, and all who die in mortal sin. No one can come out of Hell, for out of Hell there is no redemption" (Crawford & Rossiter, "Reasons for Living: Education and Young People's Search for Meaning" (2006). p. 192);"Hell is the place and state of eternal punishment for the fallen angels and human beings who die deliberately estranged from the love of God" (work by Fr. Kenneth Baker published by Ignatius Press );"What do we mean by "hell"? Hell is the place and state of eternal punishment for the fallen angels and human beings who die deliberately estranged from the love of God. The existence of hell, as the everlasting abode of the devils and those human beings who have died in the state of mortal sin, is a defined dogma of the Catholic Church" (Baker, "Fundamentals of Catholicism" (1983), volume 3, p. 371).
"The recent Catechism is ambiguous, neither denying nor confirming the existence of physical torments" - Charles Steven Seymour, "A Theodicy of Hell', p. 82 (2000).
Hell is the natural consequence of a life lived apart from God. The terrible suffering of hell consists in the realization that, over the course of a lifetime, one has come, not to love, but to hate one's true good, and thus to be radically unfit to enjoy that Good. It is this pain of loss that is central to the Catholic understanding of hell. Imagine the predicament of one who both knows that God is the great love of his life, and that he has turned irreversably away from this love. This is what hell is" (J. A. DiNoia, Gabriel O'Donnell, Romanus Cessario, Peter J. Cameron (editors), The Love That Never Ends: A Key to the Catechism of the Catholic Church, p. 45). （頁面存檔備份，存於網際網路檔案館）
Marthaler, Berard L. (2007). The Creed. Twenty-Third Publications. p. 211. ISBN 978-0-89622-537-4.;Hayes, Zachary J. (1996). Four Views on Hell. Zondervan. p. 176. ISBN 0-310-21268-5.
K. P. Yohannan, Revolution in World Missions, 1986-2004, chapter 10: "I ask my listeners to hold their wrists and find their pulse. Then I explain that every beat they feel represents the death of someone in Asia who has died and gone to eternal hell without ever hearing the Good News of Jesus Christ even once."
"Chapter 46: The Last Judgment", Gospel Principles (Salt Lake City, Utah: LDS Church, 2011)；http://www.lds.org/scriptures/gs/hell；Doctrine and Covenants 88:100–01.
Moses 5:22–26;LDS Church, Guide to the Scriptures: Hell; see also Doctrine and Covenants 76:43–46; Chapter 46: The Last Judgment", Gospel Principles (Salt Lake City, Utah: LDS Church, 2011).
"The word Hell is not translated with clearness sufficient to represent the various meanings of the word in the original language. There are three words from which "Hell" is derived: Sheol, "the unseen state"; Hades, "the unseen world"; and Gehenna, "Valley of Hinnom." These are used in various relations, nearly all of them allegorical. In a sermon Archdeacon Farrar said: "There would be the proper teaching about Hell if we calmly and deliberately erased from our English Bibles the three words, 'damnation, ' 'Hell, ' and 'everlasting. ' I say—unhesitatingly I say, claiming the fullest right to speak with the authority of knowledge—that not one of those words ought to stand any longer in our English Bible, for, in our present acceptation of them, they are simply mistranslations." This corroborates the metaphysical interpretation of Scripture, and sustains the truth that Hell is a figure of speech that represents a corrective state of mind. When error has reached its limit, the retroactive law asserts itself, and judgment, being part of that law, brings the penalty upon the transgressor. This penalty is not punishment, but discipline, and if the transgressor is truly repentant and obedient, he is forgiven in Truth. —Charles Fillmore, Christian Healing, Lesson 11, item eleven."
