Mgaŵano wa Afilika

Nkhondo ya ku Africa, iyo yikumanyikwaso kuti Kupatukana kwa Africa, panji Kupoka kwa Africa, yikaŵa nkhondo ya kuwukira, kupoka, kugaŵikana, na kukoloneska vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa na maboma gha ku Europe ghaŵiri gha kumanjiliro gha dazi. Pa caru cose ca ku Africa ico cikaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa ŵa ku Europe mu 1870, ciŵelengero ici cikakwera kufika pa 90 peresenti mu 1914.^[1]

For Fundo zakukhwaskana na uko ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu Africa pambere chaka cha 1880 chindafike, kusazgapo uko ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga ku Cartagena na ku Europe, see Kuwusa mu Africa. For buku la Thomas Pakenham, see Nkhondo ya ku Africa (buku).

Vigaŵa vya mu Africa ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa mazaza gha maboma gha ku Europe mu 1913 Ufumu wa Belgium (wafipa), Britain (wa pinki), France (wa buluu), Germany (wa teal), Italy (wa lime green), Portugal (wa violet), na Spain (wa lilac).

Pa ungano uwo ukachitikira ku Berlin mu 1884, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuzomerezga kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ndiwo ŵakambiska vyamalonda mu Africa. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, maboma gha ku Europe ghakatimbananga pa nkhani za ndyali. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, vinthu vikasintha kufuma ku "ufumu wambura kuzomerezgeka" - mazaza gha ŵasilikari na usambazi - kuya ku muwuso wakudunjika.

Mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yakuzizima, vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa vikaŵa vyambura ŵanthu. Mazuŵa ghano napo, mphaka za ufumu na vinthu vya cuma ivyo vikapangika cifukwa ca nkhondo iyi vikukhwaska ndyali na vya cuma vya mu Africa.^[2]

Mbili

Kuzakafika mu 1841, ŵamalonda ŵa ku Europe ŵakakhazikiska malo ghacoko gha malonda mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Africa, kweni ŵakendanga mu vigaŵa vya mukati pera. Ŵakaguliskanga chomene na ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakakhalanga yayi mu vigaŵa vinandi vya charu ichi chifukwa chakuti ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakafwanga na matenda nga ni maleriya. Pakati pa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa ku Europe ŵakajambura mapu gha vyaru vinandi vya ku East Africa na Central Africa.

Kuzakafika m'ma 1870, ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakaŵa na mazaza pa chigaŵa cha 10% cha Africa, ndipo vigaŵa vyawo vyose vikaŵa pafupi na nyanja. Vyaru vyakuzirwa comene vikaŵa Angola na Mozambique, ivyo vikaŵa vya Portugal; Cape Colony, ivyo vikaŵa vya Britain; na Algeria, ivyo vikaŵa vya France. Kuzakafika mu 1914, mu vyaru vya ku Europe mukaŵa vyaru vya Ethiopia na Liberia pera ivyo vikaŵa vyambura kulamulirika na vyaru vya America.

Vinthu vikenda makora chomene mu vyakupangapanga ndipo vikawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵalute ku vyaru vinyake. Makampani ghakupanga vinthu vinandi chomene pa nkhani ya mendero na mawoko, chomenechomene pa nkhani ya sitima za pa maji, njanji, na matelefoni. Vinthu vinyake ivyo vikawovwira chomene ni munkhwala, comenecomene munkhwala wakumazgira matenda agho ghakwiza mu vyaru vyamuthondo. Kufumiskika kwa chinine, munkhwala wakukoma maleriya, kukawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵafike makora ku malo ghakuru gha mu vyaru vya mu vigaŵa vyakututuka.s.^[3]

Vyakwambiska

Africa na vyaru vya caru cose

Mapu gha ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa na maufumu agho ghakaŵako pambere ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵandambe kulamulira charu chawo (kwambira mu 500 B.C.E. m'paka mu 1500 C.E.)

Kuyaniska Afrika mu 1880 na 1913

Caru ca Africa kumwera kwa Sahara, cimoza mwa vigaŵa vyaumaliro pa caru cose ico cikakhwaskika yayi na "maufumu gha caru", cikaŵa cakukondweska ku ŵamalonda. Mu nyengo iyo malonda gha Britain ghakatimbanizgikiranga comene, kweniso mu nyengo ya suzgo la ndalama (1873-1896), caru ca Africa cikapeleka ku Britain, Germany, France, na vyaru vinyake msika uwo ukaŵapa ndalama zinandi.^[4]

Kanandi ndalama izo ŵakasanganga mu vyaru vinyake zikaŵanga zakovwira comene, cifukwa vinthu vyapacanya, mpikisano, na vinthu vinandi ivyo ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito vikapangiska kuti ŵasange ndalama zinandi. Cinthu cinyake ico cikapangiska kuti ŵathemba ŵambeso kuwusa caru cikaŵa kukhumba vinthu vyakukhumbikwa comene, comenecomene njovu, mphira, mafuta, koko, dayamondi, tiyi, na thini. Kweniso, Britain wakakhumbanga kuwusa vigaŵa vinyake vya kumwera na kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa uko ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga para ŵakuluta ku Asia na ku India. Kweni kupaturako cigaŵa ico cikazgoka South Africa mu 1910, vyaru vya ku Europe vikagwiliskira nchito ndalama zicoko comene mu Africa pakuyaniska na vyaru vinyake. Ntheura, makampani agho ghakacitanga malonda mu vyaru vya mu Africa ghakaŵa ghacoko comene, kupaturako De Beers Mining Company ya Cecil Rhodes. Rhodes wakaŵa kuti wapanga Rhodesia kuŵa wake. Leopold II wa ku Belgium wakambiska boma lakucemeka Congo Free State kuti lipangire mphira na vinthu vinyake.

Ŵanthu awo ŵakakolerananga na boma la Germany, nga ni Alldeutscher Verband, Francesco Crispi na Jules Ferry, ŵakatenge usange vyaru vya ku Africa vingaŵa na misika yakuvikilirika, mbwenu vimazgenge suzgo la kuguliska vinthu pa mtengo wapasi. John A. Hobson wakayowoya mu buku lake lakuti Imperialism kuti kuchepa kwa misika ya mu vyaru ivi ndiko kukawovwira kuti nyengo ya "New Imperialism" yifike pa charu chose. Ndipouli, William Easterly wakususka fundo yakuti capitalism na imperialism vikukolerana yayi. Iyo wakuti kolonialism yikovwira chomene kuti ŵanthu ŵasambire vya boma m'malo mwa makampani. Iyo wakayowoya kuti "ufumu wa ŵamitundu uli wakukolerana yayi na capitalism na misika ya wanangwa... m'paka sono pali kukolerana pakati pa ufumu wa ŵamitundu na umo boma likucitira vinthu".^[5]

Kupambana kwa ndyali

Chithuzithuzi cha ku France icho chikulongora umo Major Marchand wakendera mu Africa m'paka ku Fashoda mu 1898

Nangauli mu vyaru vya mu Africa mukaŵa vyakurya vinandi yayi, kweni mu vyaru vinyake vikaŵa vinandi. Charu ichi chikaŵa pakati pa Eguputo na kumwera kwa Africa uko kukaŵa usambazi wa golide na dayamondi. Boma la Britain likakhumbanga kuti likhazikiske misika yiwemi ku India, Malaya, Australia, na New Zealand. Ntheura likakhumbanga kuti maji gha mu Suez Canal, agho ghakazengeka mu 1869, ghaŵe ghakukhora. Ndipouli, fundo yakuti Britain wakakhumbanga kunjizga East Africa mu ma 1880, cifukwa ca kughanaghana vya ku Eguputo (makamaka Suez Canal), yikususkika na ŵanthu ŵa mbiri nga ni John Darwin (1997) na Jonas F. Gjersø (2015).^[6][7]Ŵanthu ŵa ku Africa ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵatore malo gha ŵasilikari na ŵasilikari ŵa ku nyanja kuti ŵaŵe na mazaza. Chifukwa chakuti ŵasilikari ŵa ku nyanja ŵakamba kukura, kweniso ngalaŵa zaphya zikendanga na mphepo, pakakhumbikwanga malo ghakusungirako malibwe gha makara. Kweniso ŵakakhumbikwiranga mizi yakuvikililira misewu ya pa nyanja na nthowa zakwendamo, comenecomene misewu yakuzirwa ya pa caru cose nga ni Suez Canal. Ŵakawonanga vyaru nga ni vinthu vyakukhumbikwa pakudumbiskana vya nkhongono. Vyaru ivyo vikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵanandi, navyo vikaŵa na ŵasilikari ŵanandi; Britain na France ŵakagwiliskiranga ntchito ŵasilikari ŵanandi ŵa ku British Indian na North African, mu nkhondo zawo zinandi za ku malo agha. Mu nyengo ya kutemwa caru, ŵanthu ŵakakhumbanga kuti mtundu unyake uŵe na ufumu, ndipo ici cikaŵa cilongolero cakuti uli na udindo. Kukwambilira kwa ma 1880, Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza wakawonanga caru ca Congo ku France, ndipo panyengo yeneyiyo, Henry Morton Stanley nayo wakawonanga caru ici mu zina la Leopold II wa ku Belgium. Mu Meyi 1881, caru ca France cikapoka caru ca Tunisia, ndipo ici cikapangiska kuti Italy wanjire mu wupu wa German-Austrian Dual Alliance mu 1882. Mu chaka chenechicho, Britain likapoka caru ca Eguputo, ico cikalongozganga caru ca Sudan na vigaŵa vinyake vya Chad, Eritrea, na Somalia. Mu 1884, Germany yikati Togo, Cameroon, na South West Africa viŵenge pasi pa muwuso wake. Charu cha French West Africa chikapangika mu 1895 ndipo cha French Equatorial Africa mu 1910. Mu chigaŵa cha French Somaliland, mu 1889, Ŵakozaci ŵa ku Terek ŵakamba kulamulira malo ghanyake gha ku Russia agho ghakaŵa mu msumba wa Sagallo ku Eguputo.^[8]

David Livingstone, uyo wakambapo kusambira vya mu Africa na kulimbana na malonda gha ŵazga

Germany's Weltpolitik

Ŵasilikari ŵa Askari mu German East Africa, c. 1906

Ku Germany, uko kukaŵa vyaru vichoko, pakwamba kukaŵavya ufumu wa vyaru vinyake. Mu 1862, Otto von Bismarck wakazgoka nduna ya Ufumu wa Prussia, ndipo cifukwa ca nkhondo zinandi izo wakacita na Austria mu 1866 na France mu 1870, wakawovwira kuti caru cose ca Germany ciŵe pasi pa muwuso wa Prussia. Ufumu wa Germany ukamba kulamulira pa Janyuwale 18, 1871. Pakwamba, Bismarck wakatinkhanga vyaru vinyake, kweni mu ma 1880, ŵanthu ŵakamba kumusuzga. Wakawovwira pa ungano wa ku Berlin uwo ukachitika mu 1884-85, uwo ukaŵa na malango ghakwendeskera vyaru vya mu Africa, na kuchepeska suzgo la nkhondo pakati pa maboma gha vyaru vinyake. Bismarck wakagwiliskiranga nchito makampani gha ŵanthu ŵacoko kuti wakhazikiske vyaru vinyake mu Africa na mu Pacific.

Kulimbana na ŵasilikari ŵa ku Germany kukaŵa kwakuyana waka na ivyo vikachitikanga mu caru ici. Kukwambilira kwa m'ma 1880, ŵakazenga German Colonialverein, ndipo ŵakafumiskanga nyuzipepara ya Kolonialzeitung. Gulu la ŵasilikari la Alldeutscher Verband nalo likakolerana na fundo iyi. Weltpolitik (ndondomeko ya caru cose) yikaŵa ndondomeko ya caru cose iyo yikacitika na Kaiser Wilhelm II mu 1890, na cilato cakuti Germany waŵe ufumu wankhongono pa caru cose. Mu 1914, charu cha Germany ndicho chikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵakukwana 14 miliyoni. Vyaru ivyo vikaŵa mu Africa vikaŵa kumwera kwa Africa, Togo, Cameroon, na Tanganyika. Mu 1905, caru ca Germany cikayezga kupatura caru ca France na nkhondo yakwamba ya ku Morocco. Ivi vikapangiska kuti pa ungano uwo ukachitikira ku Algeciras mu 1905, France yigeziske malo ghanyake mu Morocco.

Kukura kwa Italy

Ndege za ku Italy zikulimbana na ŵasilikari ŵa Ottoman pa nyengo ya nkhondo ya ku Libya

Nkhondo ya ku Crimean (1853-56) yikati yamara, ufumu wa Sardinia ukakhumbanga kuti ukoleranenge na caru ca Italy. Pamanyuma pa nkhondo na Austria mu 1859, Sardinia, pasi pa muwuso wa Giuseppe Garibaldi, wakamanya kuwunganya chigaŵa chikuru cha chilumba ichi mu 1861, na kukhazikiska Ufumu wa Italy. Pamasinda, Italy wakakhumbanga kusazgirako vigaŵa vyake na kuŵa ufumu wankhongono, ndipo mu 1870 na 1882 wakapoka vigaŵa vinyake vya Eritrea. Mu 1889-90, yikaŵa ku chigaŵa cha kumwera kwa Africa, ndipo yikaŵa chigaŵa icho chikazgoka Italian Somaliland. Mu 1889, apo Themba Yohannes IV likafwa, mulara wa ŵasilikari zina lake Oreste Baratieri wakakora malo gha ku Ethiopia agho ghakaŵa mumphepete mwa nyanja ya Eritrea. Nkhondo Yakwamba ya ku Italy na Ethiopia yikati yanangika mu 1895, ŵasilikari ŵa ku Italy ŵakathereskeka cifukwa cakuti Ŵaetiyopiya ŵakaŵa ŵanandi, ŵakaŵa ŵakunozgeka makora, kweniso ŵakakhozgekanga na Russia na France. Mu 1911, caru ca Italy cikaluta ku nkhondo na ufumu wa Ottoman, ndipo cikapoka Tripolitania na Cyrenaica. Mu 1919, Enrico Corradini wakambiska fundo ya Proletarian Nationalism, iyo yikwenera kuti yikovwira kuti ufumu wa Italy uŵe wakwenelera kwizira mu kusanganiska cisopa na cisopa:

Tikwenera kumanya kuti pali mitundu ya ŵanthu awo ŵakuchita vinthu mwakuyana na umo ŵanthu ŵakuchitira. Para ŵanthu ŵamanya fundo iyi, ŵakweneraso kukolerana na unenesko uwu: Italy ni caru ca ŵanthu ŵambura nchito..^[9]

Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya ku Italy na Abyssinia (1935-1936), iyo yikalangulika na Benito Mussolini, wakaŵa nkhondo yaumaliro ya ku Africa (iyo yikaŵa ya kuzenga charu chinyake, m'malo mwa nkhondo za kufwatura ŵanthu). Charu cha Italy cha Ethiopia chikapokeka na ŵasilikari ŵa Italy mu Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose nga ni cigaŵa ca Italy East Africa nangauli chigaŵa cikuru ca mapiri cikaŵa cambura kulamulirika na Italy cifukwa ca ŵanthu ŵa Arbegnoch. Kuwukira caru ici ni ciyelezgero ciwemi comene ca umo ŵasilikari ŵa Axis ŵakacitiranga.

Mbiri na mikhaliro

Ŵanji ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru vinyake pambere Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose yindambe

Congo

Henry Morton Stanley

Ivyo David Livingstone wakacita, ivyo Henry Morton Stanley wakacitanga, vikakhozga maghanoghano gha Stanley pa nkhani ya kukoloneska caru. Kweni cifukwa ca masuzgo na vyakucitika ivyo vikakhumbikwanga, ŵanthu ŵakamovwira comene yayi. Kufuma mu 1869 m'paka 1874, Leopold II wakatuma Stanley ku chigaŵa cha Congo, uko wakachita mapangano na ŵalongozgi ŵanandi ŵa ku Africa mumphepete mwa Mlonga wa Congo..

Pierre Savorgnan de Brazza mu kawonekero kake ka kavwaliro ka "ŵeneco", kakutoleka na Félix Nadar

Apo Stanley wakendanga mu vyaru vya ku Congo mu zina la Leopold II wa ku Belgium, Pierre de Brazza, uyo wakaŵa mulara wa ŵasilikari ŵa ku France na Italy, wakaluta ku chigaŵa cha kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Congo ndipo wakawuska ndembera ya France pa msumba wa Brazzaville mu 1881. Portugal nayo wakakhumbanga malo agha cifukwa ca phangano lakale na ufumu wa Kongo.

Kuzakafika mu 1890, boma la Congo Free State likaŵa kuti laŵika mazaza ghake pakati pa Leopoldville na Stanleyville, ndipo likakhumbanga kunjilira kumwera kwa mlonga wa Lualaba kufuma ku Stanleyville. Pa nyengo yeneyiyo, kampani ya British South Africa Company ya Cecil Rhodes yikamba kwenda kumpoto kufuma ku mlonga wa Limpopo, na kutuma ŵapayiniya (ŵakulongozgeka na Frederick Selous) kujumpha mu Matabeleland, na kwamba kukhazikika mu Mashonaland.

Tippu, Muarabu wa ku Zanzibar uyo wakakhalanga mu Ufumu wa Zanzibar, nayo wakawovwirapo chomene pakuvikilira ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe. Wakati wakhazikiska ufumu wa malonda mu Zanzibar na vigaŵa vyapafupi mu East Africa, Tippu Tip wakasintha maghanoghano ghake ku vyaru ivyo vikaŵa na mazaza pa malo agha ndipo pa fundo ya Henry Morton Stanley, Tippu Tip wakazgoka kazembe wa "Stanley Falls District" (Boyoma Falls) mu boma la Leopold la Congo Free State, pambere wandanjire mu Nkhondo ya Congo-Arab against Leopold II's colonial state.

Kumanjiliro gha dazi, mu caru ico ŵakeneranga kukumana, kukaŵa Katanga, uko kukaŵa ufumu wa Yeke wa Msiri. Msiri wakaŵa fumu yankhongono comene mu cigaŵa ici ndipo wakaguliskanga mkuŵa, njovu, na ŵazga. Ku Katanga ndiko kukacitika nkhondo iyi. Mu 1890, Rhodes wakatuma ŵanthu ŵaŵiri ku Msiri, Alfred Sharpe, uyo ŵakamukana, na Joseph Thomson, awo ŵakatondeka kufika ku Katanga. Leopold wakatuma ŵasilikari ŵanayi. Chakwamba, gulu la Le Marinel likasanga waka kalata yambura kupulikikwa makora. Gulu la Delcommune likakanika. Gulu la ŵasilikari la Stairs, ilo likaŵa na vilwero viwemi, likapika ulongozgi wakuti lipokere Katanga kwali Msiri wazomerezge panji yayi. Msiri wakati wakana, ŵakamudinya, ndipo ŵakamudumura mutu na kumupayika pa khuni kuti ŵanthu ŵasambirepo. Gulu ilo likalongozganga pa Mlonga wa Bia likamalizga mulimo wa kukhazikiska boma na "ŵapolisi" mu Katanga. Mwantheura, chigaŵa cha Katanga icho chikaŵa na malo ghakukwana hafu ya miliyoni ghakaŵa gha Leopold ndipo ufumu wake wa ku Africa ukafika pa malo ghakukwana 2,300,000, agho ghakaŵa ghakuru kuluska Belgium kankhondi na kaŵiri. Boma la Congo Free State likaŵa na nkhaza zikuru chomene pa ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru vinyake, ndipo likakanizganga ŵanthu ŵanandi kugwira ntchito zinonono, mwakuti boma la Belgium, likati lakoserezgeka na wupu wakuchemeka Congo Reform Association, likamazga muwuso wa Leopold II na kuwunjika charu ichi pa Ogasiti 20, 1908.^[10]

Kufuma mu 1885 m'paka 1908, ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakachitanga nkhaza zinandi mu charu cha Congo Free State.

Ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakumanya kuti Themba Leopold II likachitiranga nkhaza ŵanthu ŵanandi mu charu icho kale chikaŵa pasi pake, cha Congo Free State. Roger Casement, uyo wakaŵa mulara wa vyaru vya Ireland, wakati pali vifukwa vikuru vinayi ivyo vikawovwilira kuti ŵanthu ŵafumemo mu vyaru ivi: "nkhondo yambura kujikora", njara, kuchepa kwa ŵana, na matenda. Matenda gha mu tulo ghakatimbanizga caru ici ndipo ghakwenera kughanaghanirika cifukwa ca kuchepa kwa ŵantu. Ŵanthu ŵakupambaniska chomene pa nkhani ya unandi wa awo ŵakafwa. Pakuti kalembera wakwamba wakacitika mu 1924, nchakusuzga kumanya unandi wa ŵanthu awo ŵakafwa. Lipoti la Casement likati ni 3 miliyoni. William Rubinstein wakalemba kuti: "Nadi, vikuwoneka kuti ivyo Hochschild wakayowoya ni vyautesi. Mbunenesko kuti palije umo tingasimikizgira unandi wa ŵanthu ŵa ku Congo pambere vyaka vya m'ma 1900 vindafike. Mu vigaŵa vinandi vya mu charu cha Congo mukaŵavya uyo wakamanya uko kukaŵa ŵanthu".

Ndimo vikaŵiraso mu charu cha French Congo, uko ŵanthu ŵanandi ŵakasuzgikanga na matenda. Mu 1905, boma la France likimika komiti iyo yikalongozgekanga na De Brazza kuti yifufuze nkhani izo zikayowoyekanga kuti ŵanthu ŵakasuzgikanga. Ndipouli, de Brazza wakafwa pa ulendo wa kuwelera, ndipo lipoti lake likapelekeka yayi ku ŵanthu. Mu ma 1920, ŵanthu pafupifupi 20,000 awo ŵakacizgika kugwira nchito ŵakafwa pakuzenga njanji iyo yikajumphanga mu France.^[11]

Egypt, Sudan, and South Sudan

Suez Canal

Ku Port Said uko ŵanthu ŵakunjira pa Suez Canal, kuli chikozgo cha De Lesseps

Kuti wazenga Suez Canal, Ferdinand de Lesseps wa ku France wakapokera vinthu vinandi kwa Isma'il Pasha, Khedive wa ku Egypt na Sudan mu 1854-56. Ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu 30,000 ŵakazenga, kweni ŵanyake ŵakuti ŵanthu 120,000 ŵakafwa na njara, kutopa, na matenda, comenecomene kolera. Pambere ŵandamalizge kuzenga, mu 1869, Khedive Isma'il wakabwereka ndalama zinandi ku ŵanthu ŵa ku Britain na France. Kuzakafika mu 1875, wakaŵa na masuzgo gha ndalama ndipo wakeneranga kuguliska masheya agho wakaŵa nagho mu Suez Canal. Boma la Britain, ilo likaŵa pasi pa nduna yikuru Benjamin Disraeli, likakhumbanga kuti charu chake chiŵe na mazaza pa maji agha. Mu 1879, apo Isma'il wakaleka ngongoli ya Eguputo, Britain na France ŵakamba kulamulira charu ichi.^[12]Ŵalongozgi ŵa ku Eguputo na ku Sudan ŵakakondwa yayi kuti ŵanyawo ŵanjirengepo.

Nkhondo ya Mahdist

Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1870, ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kulimbana na malonda gha ŵazga, ndipo ichi chikapangiska kuti ku mpoto kwa Sudan kuŵe suzgo la vyachuma. Mu 1881, ku Sudan kukawuka chigaluka cha Mahdist icho chikaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa Muhammad Ahmad. Mu chaka chenechicho, Tewfik wakasuzgika chomene na gulu la nkhondo la Ŵaeguputo. Mu 1882, Tewfik wakapempha ŵasilikari ŵa Britain kuti ŵamovwire, ndipo ŵakamba kulamulira Eguputo. Ŵasilikari ŵa Britain na Egypt ŵakanjira mu Nkhondo ya Mahdist. Kweniso chigaŵa cha Egypt cha Equatoria (chenechicho chili ku South Sudan) icho chikalongozgekanga na Emin Pasha nacho chikaŵa pasi pa mulimo wa Emin Pasha wa kovwira ŵasilikari ŵa Mahdist. Ŵasilikari ŵa Britain na Eguputo ŵakathereska ŵasilikari ŵa Mahdi ku Sudan mu 1898.^[13] Kufuma apo, Britain yikamba kulamulira caru ca Sudan, ico cikacemekanga kuti Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.

Berlin Conference (1884–1885)

Nkhani ikulu: Berlin Conference

Otto von Bismarck pa ungano wa ku Berlin, 1884

Kupoka caru ca Egupto na Congo vikaŵa vyakucitika vikuru comene vyakwambilira vya nkhondo ya ku Africa. Mu 1884, Otto von Bismarck wakacema ungano wa ku Berlin uwo ukacitika mu 1884-1885 kuti wadumbiskane suzgo la ku Africa. Apo ŵakadumbiskananga vya kumazga malonda gha ŵazga ndiposo umo ŵamishonale ŵangapharazgira ku vyaru vinyake, awo ŵakiza ku ungano uwu ŵakafipiranga mtima comene kuti ŵaleke kurwa nkhondo na ŵamazaza ŵa ku Europe. Cakuzirwa comene nchakuti ŵadipulomatesi ŵa ku Berlin ŵakanozga malango agho ghakaŵa ghakovwira ŵamazaza kuti ŵasange vyaru vinyake. Kweniso ŵakakolerana kuti chigaŵa icho chikaŵa mumphepete mwa Mlonga wa Congo chiŵenge pasi pa muwuso wa Leopold II. Palije mtundu uwo ukeneranga kupoka caru ca Africa kwambura kuphalira ŵamazaza ŵanyakeso. Pakaŵavya cigaŵa ico cikaŵa cakwenelera kupoka pambere ŵandambe kucikora. Ndipouli, awo ŵakachitanga maseŵera ŵakasulako malango, ndipo nyengo zinandi nkhondo yikaŵa pafupi kumara. Vyaru vya Swahili vya ku Zanzibar vikagaŵikana pakati pa Germany na Britain, ndipo pakwamba vikatenge viŵenge vyekha mpaka mu 1890.^[14]

Boma la Britain ku Egypt na South Africa

Mwana wa ku Boer mu msasa wakusuzgirako ŵanthu wa ku Britain mu nyengo ya Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya ku Boer (1899-1902)

Boma la Britain likati lakhala ku Eguputo na ku Cape Colony, ŵanthu ŵakamba kufipa mtima chomene na uko mlonga wa Nayelo ukufuma. Mu 1882, Ŵacigiriki ŵakatora caru ca Eguputo, ndipo ufumu wa Ottoman ukakhala waka mu caru ici mpaka mu 1914, apo London ukawuzgora ufumu wakuvikilirika. Eguputo wakaŵa wakukolerana yayi na Britain. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1890 na kuuyambiro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1900, charu cha Sudan, Nigeria, Kenya, na Uganda vikaŵa pasi pa mazaza gha ŵanthu ŵa ku Cape. Theophilus Shepstone wakatoraso caru ca South Africa mu 1877 na kuŵa ca ufumu wa Britain. Mu 1879, pamanyuma pa Nkhondo ya Anglo-Zulu, Britain yikakhozga mazaza ghake pa vigaŵa vinandi vya South Africa. Ŵaburu ŵakasuska, ndipo mu Disembala 1880 ŵakagaluka, ndipo ivi vikapangiska kuti paŵe Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Ŵaburu. Pa 23 Malichi, 1881, William Gladstone, uyo wakaŵa nduna yikuru ya Britain, wakalemba phangano la mtende. Kuwukira kwa Jameson mu 1895 kukaŵa kuyezgayezga kwa British South Africa Company na Johannesburg Reform Committee kuti ŵathereske boma la Boer mu Transvaal. Nkhondo yaciŵiri ya ŵa Boer, iyo yikacitika pakati pa 1899 na 1902, yikaŵa ya kuwusa nchito za golide na daimondi; ma republics gha ŵa Boer gha Orange Free State na South African Republic ghakathereskeka na kunjizgika mu ufumu wa Britain.

Ŵasilikari ŵa ku France ŵakanjira mu vyaru vya mu Africa kufuma ku West Africa (uko sono ni Senegal) na kuluta kumafumiro gha dazi, kujumpha mu Sahel m'paka ku mphaka ya kumwera kwa Sahara. Chilato chawo chikaŵa chakuti ŵalutilire kulamulira kufuma ku Mlonga wa Niger m'paka ku Nile, ndipo ŵakendeskanga malonda ghose agho ghakafumanga na kuluta ku Sahel. Kweni ŵa ku Britain ŵakakhumbanga kuti malo agho ŵakaŵa nagho kumwera kwa Africa ghaŵe pamoza na malo agho ŵakaŵa nagho kumafumiro gha dazi kwa Africa.

Muhammad Ahmad, mulongozgi wa Mahdi. Gulu ili la Ŵasilamu likapoka caru cose ca Sudan na kurwa nkhondo na ŵasilikari ŵa Britain.

Charu cha Sudan (uko sono ni Uganda) ndicho chikawovwira kuti vinthu ivi vicitike, comenecomene apo Eguputo wakaŵa pasi pa Britain. Cecil Rhodes ndiyo wakamanya comene za "mzere uswesi" uwo ukujumpha mu Africa. Padera pa Lord Milner, uyo wakaŵa mulara wa boma la Britain ku South Africa, Rhodes wakawoneseska kuti ku South Africa kuŵe ufumu wa "Cape to Cairo", uwo ukakolerananga na njanji ya Suez Canal na South Africa. Nangauli caru ca Tanganyika cikapokelereka na ŵa German m'paka paumaliro wa Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose, kweni Rhodes wakathereska caru ici.

Britain wakakhumbanga kusazgirako ufumu wake wa ku East Africa kufuma ku Cairo m'paka ku Cape of Good Hope, apo France wakakhumbanga kusazgirako ufumu wake kufuma ku Dakar m'paka ku Sudan. Usange munthu wangayora mzere kufuma ku Cape Town kuya ku Cairo (loto la Rhodes), na unyake kufuma ku Dakar kuya ku Horn of Africa (luso la France), mizere yiŵiri iyi yikudumura ku malo ghanyake ku mafumiro gha dazi kwa Sudan kufupi na Fashoda, kulongosora kuzirwa kwake.

Gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa ku France la Jean-Baptiste Marchand ndilo likamba kufika ku Fashoda. Ŵasilikari ŵa ku France ŵakafumapo ndipo ŵakalutilira kupempha malo ghanyake mu cigaŵa ici. Cakucitika ca Fashoda cikapangiska kuti paŵe phangano la Entente Cordiale la 1904, ilo likapeleka mtende pakati pa ŵaŵiri aŵa.

Phangano la Anglo-French

Mu 1890, Britain na France ŵakamazga mphindano ya vyaru ivyo ŵakakhalanga. Kuyana na umo caru ca France cikapokeleranga mazaza gha Britain pa Zanzibar, ufumu wa Britain ukazomera kuti France ndiyo uli na mazaza pa caru ca Madagascar kweniso kuti ndiwo uli na mazaza pa caru ca North Africa, m'paka ku Sokoto. Ndipouli, chikaŵa chakusuzga kuti munthu wasange mphaka iyi kwambura mapu ghakuru.^[15]

Moroccan Crises

Nkhani ikulu: First Moroccan Crisis and Agadir Crisis

Mapu agho ghakulongora umo charu cha Morocco chikaŵira m'paka mu 1934

Nangauli Ungano wa ku Berlin ukaŵa kuti waŵika malango gha nkhondo ya ku Africa, kweni ukaŵatondeska yayi ŵasilikari awo ŵakalimbananga nawo. Chifukwa cha phangano la Entente Cordiale, themba la Germany likaghanaghana vya kuyezga mazaza ghake mwa kugwiliskira nchito caru ca Morocco. Kaiser Wilhelm II wakaluta ku Tangier pa 31 March 1905 ndipo wakayowoya nkhani yakukhozgera wanangwa wa Morocco. Mu 1904, caru ca Britain na Spain vikazomerezga kuti caru ca France ciŵepo. Ivyo Kaiser wakayowoya vikakhozga mtima wa caru ca France, ndipo cifukwa ca wovwiri wa Britain, Théophile Delcassé, nduna ya vyaru vya kuwaro ya France, wakakana. Suzgo ili likakura comene pakati pa Juni 1905, apo Delcassé wakacimbizgika na nduna yikuru Maurice Rouvier. Kweni mu Julayi 1905, caru ca Germany cikaŵa kuti capatukana na ŵasilikari ŵa boma la France, ndipo ŵakazomerezga kuti paŵe ungano uwo uzamumazga suzgo ili.

Fumu ya ku Morocco, Abdelhafid, uyo wakalongozga ŵanthu awo ŵakasuskanga boma la France pa nyengo ya suzgo la Agadir

Pa ungano uwo ukacitikira ku Algeciras mu 1906, ŵakadumura kuti nkhani iyi yimare. Pa vyaru 13 ivyo vikaŵapo, ŵimiliri ŵa Germany ŵakasanga kuti Austria-Hungary ndiyo yikaŵa yekha muwukirano wawo. Boma la Britain, U.S.A., Russia, Italy, na Spain, vikawovwira comene caru ca France. Paumaliro, Ŵachijeremani ŵakakolerana na phangano ilo likalembeka pa Meyi 31, 1906, ilo likati France lichitengepo kanthu pa vinthu vinyake mu Morocco, kweni likalutilira kulamulira vigaŵa vikuruvikuru.

Ndipouli, pati pajumpha vyaka vinkhondi, Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya ku Morocco (panji Nkhondo ya ku Agadir) yikamba apo boti la German Panther likaluta ku Agadir mu Julayi 1911. Boma la Germany likakhumbanga kuti ŵasilikari ŵa ku Britain ŵalutilire kuŵa na mazaza pa nkhondo. Ŵanalume ŵa ku Britain ŵakati ŵapulika kuti ŵasilikari ŵa Panther ŵafika ku Morocco, ŵakaghanaghana kuti Ŵachijeremani ŵakukhumba kuzgora Agadir kuŵa msasa wa ŵasilikari ŵa ku Atlantic. Chilato cha boma la Germany chikaŵa chakuti liŵape ndalama zakukwana kuti ŵaŵe na mazaza pa ufumu wa ku North Africa. Mu Novembala 1911, ŵakakolerana kuti charu cha Germany chizomere malo gha France mu Morocco kuti chipeleke chigaŵa chinyake ku Middle Congo.

Pa 30 Malichi, 1912, France na Spain ŵakamba kulamulira Morocco. Kweniso, cifukwa cakuti Britain yikawovwira caru ca France pa nyengo ya nkhondo ziŵiri izo zikacitika ku Morocco, vikakhozga ubwezi pakati pa vyaru viŵiri ivi.

Dervish resistance

Pamanyuma pa ungano wa ku Berlin, ŵasilikari ŵa Britain, Italy, na Ethiopia, ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵaŵe na mazaza pa malo agho kukaŵa Ŵasomali. Gulu la Dervish, ilo likalongozgekanga na Sayid Muhammed Abdullah Hassan, likaŵako vyaka 21, kwamba mu 1899 m'paka mu 1920. Gulu la Dervish likathereska ufumu wa Britain maulendo ghanayi ndipo likapangiska kuti uwelere ku vigaŵa vya mumphepete mwa nyanja. Cifukwa ca maulendo agha, ufumu wa Ottoman na German ukamanya kuti gulu la Dervish ni mubwezi wawo. Ŵa Turkiya ŵakamuthya Hassan kuti ni fumu ya mtundu wa Somali, ndipo Ŵajeremani ŵakalayizga kuti ŵamanyenge vigaŵa vyose ivyo ŵa Dervish ŵasanga. Pakati pajumpha vilimika 25 kufuma apo ŵasilikari ŵa Britain ŵakaŵasuzganga, mu 1920 ŵasilikari ŵa Dervish ŵakathereskeka cifukwa cakuti Britain yikagwiliskira nchito ndege.

Nkhondo za Ŵaherero na Kuwukira kwa Maji Maji

Nkhani ikulu: Herero Wars and Maji Maji Rebellion

Wonaniso: Herero and Namaqua genocide

Mulara wa ŵasilikari Von Durling pamoza na ŵakayidi ku Shark Island, umoza mwa misasa yakuyuzgirako ŵanthu ya ku Germany iyo ŵakagwiliskiranga nchito pa nyengo ya kukoma ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Herero na Namaqua

Pakati pa 1904 na 1908, vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa Germany, ku German South West Africa na German East Africa, vikasuzgika na ŵanthu awo ŵakagalukira boma lawo. Mu vigaŵa vyose viŵiri ivi, ŵalwani ŵa boma la Germany ŵakathereskeka mwaluŵiro apo ŵasilikari ŵa ku Germany ŵakiza. Ŵasilikari ŵa Herero ku German South West Africa ŵakathereskeka pa Nkhondo ya Waterberg, ndipo Ŵasilikari ŵa Maji-Maji ku German East Africa ŵakasuzgika na ŵasilikari ŵa Germany.

Ŵasilikari ŵa Germany ŵakayezgayezga kuti ŵafumiske ŵanthu mu vyaru vya kumwera kwa Africa. Pa ŵanthu wose awo ŵakakhalanga mu chigaŵa ichi, ŵanthu 65,000 (80% ya ŵanthu wose ŵa mu chigaŵa ichi) na 10,000 (50% ya ŵanthu wose ŵa mu chigaŵa ichi) ŵakafwa na njara, nyota, panji ŵakagwiranga nchito mu misasa yakuyuzgirako ŵanthu nga ni Shark Island pakati pa 1904 na 1908. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Herero ŵakukwana 24,000 m'paka 100,000, Ŵanaama 10,000, na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵanandi ŵa mtundu wa San ŵakafwa.^{[16][17][18][19][20][21][22]} Ŵanthu aŵa ŵakafwa na njara, nyota, panji chifukwa cha kununkhira maji mu visimi apo ŵakaŵa mu mapopa gha Namib.^[23][24][25]

Filosofi

Kuŵa na mahara na viwoneskero

Ŵalongozgi ŵa vigaŵa

Ŵapigeme na ŵa ku Europe. Ŵanthu ŵanyake awo ŵakukhala mu malo ghakusungirako viŵeto ŵakuŵa nga ni Ota Benga, uyo wakalongoreka na Madison Grant, uyo wakasambizganga vya ŵanthu.

IMu nyengo yakwambilira, ufumu wa ŵeneco ukaŵa mulimo wa ŵanthu awo ŵakendanga mu vyaru vinyake na ŵamalonda ŵanyake. Maufumu agho ghakaŵa na mazaza pa vyaru vinyake ghakaŵa kutali comene na kuzomerezga vinthu vyakudura ivyo vikacitikanga mu vyaru vinyake. Ŵalongozgi ŵanandi ŵa ndyali, nga ni William Gladstone, ŵakasuskanga boma la Britain. Ndipouli, apo wakaŵa nduna yikuru pakati pa 1880 na 1885, wakatondeka kulimbana na ŵasilikari ŵa mu boma lake, ndipo wakaleka kufiska ivyo wakalayizga. Nangauli Gladstone wakasuskanga fundo za ufumu, kweni masuzgo agho ghakaŵapo chifukwa cha suzgo la ndalama ghakamupangiska kuti wakondweske fundo za boma. Mu France, Georges Clemenceau, wandale wa ku France, wakakananga comene: wakaghanaghananga kuti ukoloni ukufumako ku "mzere wa buluu wa mapiri gha Vosges", ndiko kuti, kuwukira caru na kukhumba kuwuskako caru ca Alsace-Lorraine ico cikapokeka na Ufumu wa Germany na phangano la Frankfurt mu 1871. Clemenceau ndiyo wakacitiska kuti Jules Ferry waleke kuwusa cifukwa ca ngozi ya mu 1885 ku Tonkin. Hannah Arendt wakalemba mu buku lake lakuti The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951), kuti kuthandazgika kwa mazaza gha ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vinyake kukususkana na umoza wa boma ilo likupeleka wanangwa wa kukhala mu charu ichi. Ntheura, pakamba kuŵa mphindano pakati pa ŵanthu awo ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu wose ŵacindikenge wanangwa wa ŵanthu awo ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru vinyake, awo ŵakuwoneka nga "mbanthu" ŵa boma, na ŵamazaza awo ŵakakhumbanga kusuzga ŵanthu awo ŵakawonekanga kuti mbambura kwenelera. Ŵanyake mu vyaru ivyo vikaŵa na ŵazga ŵakasuskanga vinthu ivyo ŵakaviwonanga kuti ni viheni yayi ivyo boma la ŵazga likachitanga para ŵaleka kuvilondezga.

Ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vinyake ŵakamba kulimbana na ŵasilikari ŵa vyaru vinyake kuti ŵaŵe na mazaza pa nkhondo ya ku Africa. Ku Germany, France, na Britain, ŵanthu ŵa m'maumba ghapakati ŵakakhumbanga kuti ŵalutilire kukolerana na ŵanyawo kuti ŵalutilire kukura. Nanga ni mu vyaru ivyo vikaŵa na mazaza ghacoko, ŵanthu nga ni Enrico Corradini ŵakayowoya kuti "vyaru vya ŵanthu ŵambura nchito" vikwenera kuŵa na "malo ghakutowa" mu caru.

Kupharazga na kusopa ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake

Mabuku ghanandi agho ghakayowoyanga vya ŵakoloni, maghanoghano ghawo, na vithuzithuzi vyawo, ghakawovwira ŵakaronga kuti ŵagomezge kuti ŵanthu ŵakutemwa chomene vyaru vyawo. Cimanyikwiro ca caru ca France ico cikaŵa mu nyengo ya kuuyambiro kwa vyaka vya m'ma 1800 na m'ma 1900, cikaŵa mulimo wa kuzgora ŵanthu kuŵa ŵalusungu. Ntheura, ŵalara ŵa boma la France ŵakachitanga ndyali za ku France na Europe mu vyaru vya France, chomenechomene ku French West Africa na Madagascar. Mu vyaka vya m'ma 1800, ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vinayi ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa boma la France, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Guyanne, Réunion, kweniso ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru vinayi vya Senegal, ŵakapika wanangwa wa kuŵa ŵimiliri ŵa Nyumba ya Malango. Kanandi ŵanthu awo ŵakasankhikanga ŵakaŵa Ŵachifurenci ŵatuŵa, nangauli pakaŵaso ŵanthu ŵafipa nga ni Blaise Diagne wa ku Senegal, uyo wakasankhika mu 1914..^[26]

Viwoneskero vya Ŵakoloni

Chithuzithuzi cha chionetsero cha mu 1906 ku Marseilles (France)

Chithuzithuzi cha ungano wa ku Brussels wa mu 1897.

Paumaliro wa Nkhondo Yakwamba ya Caru Cose, maufumu gha vyaru vya ŵazga ghakaŵa ghakumanyikwa comene pafupifupi mu vyaru vyose vya ku Europe. Vinthu ivyo vikacitikanga mu vyaru vinyake vikawovwira kuti ŵanthu ŵambe kughanaghana makora. Ntheura, para ŵanthu ŵanjira mu vyaru vinyake, ŵakawoneleranga ŵanthu ŵa mu vyaru ivi.

Mu 1874, Carl Hagenbeck, uyo wakaŵa wamalonda wa nyama za kuthondo wa ku Germany, ndipo pamasinda wakamba kupanga malo ghakusungirako viŵeto ku Europe, wakawona kuti ntchiwemi kulongora ŵanthu ŵa ku Samoa na ku Sami. Mu 1876, wakatuma yumoza wa ŵantchito ŵake ku caru ca Sudan ico cikaŵa kuti capokeka waka na Eguputo kuti wakatore vikoko na ŵanthu ŵa ku Nubia. Ŵanthu ŵa ku Nubia aŵa ŵakaŵako mu Paris, London, na Berlin. "Vipinda vya ŵanthu" ivi vikaŵa mu Hamburg, Antwerp, Barcelona, London, Milan, New York City, Paris, na kunyake, ndipo ŵanthu 200,000 panji 300,000 ŵakizanga ku malo agha. Ŵanthu ŵa mtundu wa Tuareg ŵakaŵako pamanyuma pakuti France wapoka msumba wa Timbuktu (René Caillié, uyo wakajibisa nga ni Musulumani, wakaluta kukaŵawona mu 1828, ndipo wakapokera chawanangwa chakufuma ku French Société de Géographie). Cifukwa ca kuleka kuzgoŵera nyengo iyi, ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵakafwa na nthenda iyi, nga umo vikaŵira na ŵanthu ŵanyake ŵa mtundu wa Galibi ku Paris mu 1892.

Geoffroy de Saint-Hilaire, uyo wakaŵa mulara wa Jardin d'Acclimatation, mu 1877 wakadumura vyakuti paŵe viphikiro viŵiri vya ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yakupambanapambana. Tikiti zinandi zikaguliskika ku Jardin d'Acclimatation, ndipo ŵanthu ŵakukwana 1 miliyoni ŵakalipira. Pakati pa 1877 na 1912, pa malo agha pakaŵa "vinthu vyakusanguluska" pafupifupi 30.^[27] Mu 1878, pa ungano wa caru cose uwo ukacitikira ku Paris, ŵanthu ŵakamba kuwona "midzi ya ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake". Ŵakapanga "mizinda ya ku Senegal" iyo yikaŵa na ŵanthu ŵakwendakwenda.

Ku United States, Madison Grant, uyo wakaŵa mulara wa wupu wakuwona vya vinyama ku New York, wakasanga Pygmy Ota Benga ku Bronx Zoo pamoza na vinyama vinyake mu 1906. Mubali Grant, uyo wakaŵa wasayansi wakususkana na ŵanthu ŵa mitundu yinyake, wakaphalira William Temple Hornaday, uyo wakaŵa mulara wa chiŵaya cha vinyama kuti waŵike Ota Benga mu kanyumba ako mukaŵa orangutan, ndipo wakamuthya zina lakuti "The Missing Link" kuti walongosore makora fundo ya Darwin. Vinyake ivyo ŵakawoneleranga vikaŵa vya Ufumu wa Britain uwo ukaŵako mu 1924, na vya ku Paris mu 1931.

Kulimbana na matenda

Kwambira mu vyaka vya m'ma 1900, ŵasilikari wose ŵa vyaru vyakumwera ŵakamba kulimbana na matenda. Ku Africa, nthenda ya kugona yikamara cifukwa cakuti magulu ghakupambanapambana ghakapenjerezga ŵanthu mamiliyoni ghanandi. Mu ma 1880, ng'ombe izo zikafuma ku Britain ku Asia kuti zikapeleke chakurya ku ŵasilikari ŵa ku Italy awo ŵakanjira mu charu cha Eritrea, zikasangika na nthenda yakucemeka cinkhara. Chikulutilira kupweteka viŵeto 90 pa 100 mu Africa. Ŵanthu ŵa ku malo agha ŵakasuzgikanga chomene chifukwa cha kutayika kwa viŵeto vyawo.

Mu virimika vya m'ma 1900, ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa ŵakasazgikira comene cifukwa cakuti mu vyaru vinandi ciŵelengero ca ŵanthu awo ŵakufwa cikakhira cifukwa ca mtende, kulekeska njara, munkhwala, ndiposo comenecomene cifukwa cakuti malonda gha ŵazga ghakamara. Ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa ŵakukwera kufuma pa 120 miliyoni mu 1900 kufika pa 1 biliyoni lero.^[28]

Kuwuskapo wuzga

Nkhani ikulu: Slavery in Africa#Abolition

Ŵanthu ŵakalutilira kulimbana na wuzga ku vyaru vya kumanjiliro gha dazi kwa Europe. Iyi yikaŵa nkhani yikuru pa ungano uwo ukacitikira ku Brussels mu 1889-90. Kufuma waka apo ŵanthu ŵakambira kulimbana na ŵazga mu Africa, maboma ghose agho ghakalamuliranga charu ichi ghakati ghakakhumbanga kumazga wuzga na malonda gha ŵazga. Ku French West Africa, ŵazga ŵakujumpha 1 miliyoni ŵakachimbira kwa mabwana ghawo pakati pa 1906 na 1911. Ku Madagascar, ŵa ku France ŵakalekeska wuzga mu 1896, ndipo ŵazga pafupifupi 500,000 ŵakafwatulika. Mu 1911, ŵazga ŵakalekeka mu chigaŵa cha Sahel icho chikaŵa pasi pa mazaza gha France. Vyaru vinyake ivyo vikakhumbanga kuti ŵanthu ŵaviwone nga ni vyaru vya ku Europe, nyengo zinyake vikawonanga nga kuti vikukhumba kumazga wuzga. Pakususkana na ivyo ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe ŵakachitanga, boma la Sokoto likamazga wuzga mu 1900, ndipo Ethiopia likamazga wuzga mu 1932. Nangauli ŵazga ŵakalutilira kugwira ntchito mu Africa, kweni ŵakamba kugwira ntchito za malipiro. Ku Africa, wuzga ukamara yayi.^{[29][30][31][32]}

Ivyo Vikachitika

Charu cha Cameroon, chakuŵajika na R. Hellgrewe, 1908

Paumaliro wa vyaka vya m'ma 1800, mu nyengo ya muwuso uphya wa ŵasilikari, caru ca Europe cikasazgirako pafupifupi makilomita 23,000,000 ku malo agho ghakaŵa mu vyaru vinyake. Mu vyaru ivyo vikaŵa pasi pa Europe mukaŵa vyaru vyose vya mu Africa, kupaturako Ethiopia, Liberia, na Saguia el-Hamra. Pakati pa 1885 na 1914, caru ca Britain cikapoka pafupifupi 30% ya ŵanthu ŵa mu Africa; 15% ŵa ku France, 11% ŵa ku Portugal, 9% ŵa ku Germany, 7% ŵa ku Belgium na 1% ŵa ku Italy. Ku Nigeria pera, ŵanthu ŵakukwana 15 miliyoni ŵakakoleka. Kuyana na malo agho ŵakakhalanga, Ŵacifurenci ndiwo ŵakadangiliranga comene, kweni caru cawo cikakura comene mu caru ca Sahara..^[33][34]

Nkhondo ya ndyali yikalondezgana na kuthandazgika kwa vinthu vya cuma, ndipo "mabungwe ghakulongozga vyaru" ghakakhozgeranga visambizgo vya kutinkha ŵamazaza pa suzgo yiliyose kuti ŵalutilire kuŵa ŵamahara. Nkhondo iyi yikamba mu Ogasiti 1914, apo ŵasilikari ŵa ku Europe ŵakamba kulimbana na ŵanyawo.^[35]

Makoloni gha mu Africa ghakulondezgana na ufumu uwo ukaŵako

Cikozgo ca Leopold II wa ku Belgium, Fumu ya Congo Free State kufuma mu 1885 mpaka 1908, Regent Place mu Brussels, Belgium

Belgium

• Congo Free State na
• Belgian Congo (today's
  • Democratic Republic of the Congo)
• Ruanda-Urundi (comprising modern
  • Rwandana
  • Burundi, 1922–62)

France

Wonani vinandi: French Africa

The Foureau-Lamy military expedition sent out from Algiers in 1898 to conquer the Chad Basin and unify all French territories in West Africa.

French West Africa: Mauritania Senegal Albreda (1681–1857, now part of Gambia) French Sudan (now Mali, 1880 – 1958) French Guinea (now Guinea) Ivory Coast Niger French Upper Volta (now Burkina Faso) French Dahomey (now Benin) French Togoland (1916–60, now Togo) Enclaves of Forcados and Badjibo (in modern Nigeria) French Equatorial Africa: Gabon French Cameroun (1922–60) French Congo (now Republic of the Congo) Oubangui-Chari (now Central African Republic) Chad French North Africa: French Algeria (1830-1962; was administered as an integral part of France itself from 1848) French Protectorate of Tunisia French Protectorate of Morocco Fezzan-Ghadames (1943–1951) (administration given by the UNO after its conquest by Charles de Gaulle) Egypt (ownership (1798–1801)) (Condominium of France and the United Kingdom (1876–1882))[36] French East Africa: French Madagascar Comoros Scattered islands in the Indian Ocean French Somaliland (now Djibouti) Isle de France (1715–1810) (now Mauritius)

Gulu la ŵasilikari ŵa boma la Senegal (Tirailleurs) ilo likalongozgekanga na Koloneli Alfred-Amédée Dodds, likapoka Dahomey (lero ni Benin) mu 1892

Germany

• German Kamerun (now Cameroon and part of Nigeria, 1884–1916)
• German East Africa (now Rwanda, Burundi and most of Tanzania, 1885–1919)
• German South-West Africa (now Namibia, 1884–1915)
• German Togoland (now Togo and eastern part of Ghana, 1884–1914)

After the First World War, Germany's possessions were partitioned among Britain (which took a sliver of western Cameroon, Tanzania, western Togo, and Namibia), France (which took most of Cameroon and eastern Togo) and Belgium (which took Rwanda and Burundi).

Italy

Ŵanthu ŵa ku Italy awo ŵakakhalanga ku Massawa

• Italian Eritrea
• Italian Somalia
• Italian Ethiopia
  • Oltre Giuba (annexed into Italian Somalia in 1925)
• Libya
  • Italian Tripolitania
  • Italian Cyrenaica
  • Italian Libya (from the unification of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica in 1934)

Mu nyengo ya pakati pa nkhondo, Ethiopia wa ku Italy pamoza na Eritrea wa ku Italy na Somaliland wa ku Italy ŵakapangiska Italy East Africa (A.O.I., "Africa Orientale Italiana", iyo yikumanyikwa na boma la Fascist nga L'Impero).

Portugal

Ku Marracuene, Mozambique uko kukaŵa Ŵapwitikizi, kukaŵa nkhondo pakati pa Ŵapwitikizi na themba la Gaza, Gungunhana, mu 1895

Portuguese Angola (now Angola) Mainland Angola Portuguese Congo(now Cabinda Province of Angola) Portuguese Mozambique(now Mozambique) Portuguese Guinea(now Guinea-Bissau) Portuguese Gold Coast (now part of Ghana) Portuguese Cape Verde Portuguese São Tomé and Príncipe São Tomé Island Príncipe Island Fort of São João Baptista de Ajudá(now Ouidah, in Benin)

Spain

Northern Spanish Morocco Chefchaouen (Chauen) Jebala (Yebala) Kert Loukkos (Lucus) Rif Spanish West Africa Ifni Southern Spanish Morocco (Cape Juby) Spanish Sahara (now Western Sahara) Saguia el-Hamra Río de Oro Spanish Guinea(now Equatorial Guinea) Fernando Pó Río Muni Annobón

United Kingdom

Wonani vinandi: Historiography of the British Empire

Kujura njanji mu Rhodesia, 1899

Pamanyuma pa Nkhondo Yachinayi iyo yikachitika mu 1896, ŵa ku Britain ŵakamba kulamulira Ufumu wa Ashanti.

Ku Marracuene, Mozambique uko kukaŵa Ŵapwitikizi, kukaŵa nkhondo pakati pa Ŵapwitikizi na themba la Gaza, Gungunhana, mu 1895.

Egypt British Cyrenaica (1943-1951, now part of Libya) British Tripolitania (1943-1951, now part of Libya) Anglo-Egyptian Sudan (1899–1956) British Somaliland (now part of Somalia) British East Africa: Kenya Colony Uganda Protectorate Tanzania : Tanganyika Territory (1919–61) Zanzibar British Mauritius Bechuanaland (now Botswana) Southern Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe) Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia) British Seychelles British South Africa South Africa: Transvaal Colony Cape Colony Colony of Natal Orange River Colony South-West Africa (from 1915, now Namibia) British West Africa Gambia Colony and Protectorate British Sierra Leone Colonial Nigeria British Togoland (1916–56, today part of Ghana) Cameroons (1922–61, now part of Cameroon and Nigeria) Gold Coast (British colony) (now Ghana) Nyasaland (now Malawi) Basutoland (now Lesotho) Swaziland (now Eswatini) Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha

Vyaru vyakujiyimira

Charu cha Liberia chikaŵa pasi pa muwuso wa wupu wa American Colonization Society, uwo ukaŵa na ntchito ya kusamuska ŵazga ŵa ku Africa na Caribbean kufuma ku United States na ku virwa vya Caribbean mu 1822. Pa Julayi 26, 1847, charu cha Liberia chikamba kujiyimira paŵekha. Liberia ni charu chakale chomene mu Africa ndipo ni charu chachiŵiri chakale chomene pa charu chose. Pa nyengo iyi, charu cha Liberia chikaŵa pa mtende na ŵanthu ŵa ku Europe.

Boma ili likagomezganga kuti Ethiopia ni boma la Italy nangauli charu ichi chikapokelera yayi fundo iyi.^[37] Padera pa ufumu wa Italy uwo ukaŵako pakati pa 1936 na 1941 na ŵasilikari ŵa Benito Mussolini, Etiyopiya ni charu chakale chomene mu Africa.

Vinthu ivyo vikuchitika mazuŵa ghano

Wonani vinandi: Decolonisation of Africa and Neocolonialism

Kupeleka mafuta na gasi ku Sudan ️ 2004

Ŵasayansi awo ŵakususka wanangwa wa ŵanthu ŵakukolerana na ivyo vikachitikanga kale na ivyo vikachitikanga mu Africa. Apo vyaru vya ku Africa vikamba kujiwusa vyekha pamanyuma pa Nkhondo Yachiŵiri ya Caru Cose, vinthu vyawo vikaŵa makora yayi. Kanandi ndalama zinandi izo ŵanthu ŵakaguliskanga zikafumanga ku vyakurya panji ku vinthu vinyake. Ŵasayansi aŵa ŵakuti vinthu vikasintha chomene mu Africa chifukwa ŵanthu ŵakakhalanga mu vyaru vinyake. Ŵakayowoyaso kuti mapulogiramu gha kusintha vinthu ghakawovwira kuti maboma ghanandi gha mu Africa ghaŵe na wanangwa wa vinthu vya ndyali na vyachuma.^[38]

Vithuzithuzi vya mafuta

Mu nyengo ya kuzgaluka kwa vinthu pa caru cose, vyaru vinandi vya mu Africa vyazgoka vyaru vya mafuta (nga ni Angola, Cameroon, Nigeria, na Sudan). Vyaru ivi ni vyaru ivyo vikukolerana pa nkhani za cuma na ndyali pakati pa makampani gha mafuta gha vyaru vyakupambanapambana na ŵamazaza ŵa mu vyaru vya mu Africa ivyo vili na mafuta ghanandi. Mu nyengo iyi, vyaru vinandi vikamba kukolerana na Africa. Mary Gilmartin wakati: "Kuŵa na vinthu vyakuthupi na vimanyikwiro vya malo [ntchakuzirwa chomene] kuti ufumu upharazgike na kulamulira". Makampani gha mafuta gha boma gha ku China (na vyaru vinyake vya ku Asia) ghasanga nchito yikuru ya mafuta mu Africa. China National Petroleum Corporation yikagura 40% ya Greater Nile Petroleum Operating Company. Kweniso, charu cha Sudan chikuguliska mafuta 50~60% ku China. Charu cha China chikuguliskaso masheya mu malo gha mafuta gha mu Africa, kugwiliskira nchito ndalama pakupanga vinthu vyakukhumbikwa mu vyaru ivi na kusanga malo gha mafuta mu vyaru vya mu Africa.^[39]

Wonaniso

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• Analysis of Western European colonialism and colonization
• Chronology of Western colonialism
• Durand Line
• Economic history of Africa
• French colonial empire
• Historiography of the British Empire
• International relations (1814–1919)
• List of former sovereign states
• List of French possessions and colonies
• Sykes–Picot Agreement
• White Africans of European ancestry

Vyakulemba

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• Shillington, Kevin (2005). History of Africa. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-59957-0.

Wonani vinandi

• Aldrich, Robert. Greater France: A History of French Overseas Expansion (1996)
• Atkinson, David. "Constructing Italian Africa: Geography and Geopolitics". Italian colonialism (2005): 15–26.
• Axelson, Eric. Portugal and the Scramble for Africa: 1875–1891 (Johannesburg, Witwatersrand UP, 1967)
• Betts, Raymond F., ed. The scramble for Africa: causes and dimensions of empire (Heath, 1972), short excerpts from historians. online
• Boddy-Evans, Alistair. "What Caused the Scramble for Africa?" African History (2012). online
• Brantlinger, Patrick. "Victorians and Africans: The genealogy of the myth of the dark continent." Critical Inquiry (1985): 166–203. online
• Chamberlain, Muriel Evelyn. The scramble for Africa (4th ed. Routledge, 2014) excerpt and text search; also complete text of 2nd edition 1999

• Curtin, Philip D. Disease and empire: The health of European Troops in the Conquest of Africa (Cambridge University Press, 1998)
• Darwin, John. "Imperialism and the Victorians: The dynamics of territorial expansion." English Historical Review (1997) 112#447 pp. 614–42.
• Finaldi, Giuseppe. Italian National Identity in the Scramble for Africa: Italy's African Wars in the Era of Nation-building, 1870–1900 (Peter Lang, 2009)
• Förster, Stig, Wolfgang Justin Mommsen, and Ronald Edward Robinson, eds. Bismarck, Europe and Africa: The Berlin Africa conference 1884–1885 and the onset of partition (Oxford University Press, 1988) online
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• Gifford, Prosser, and William Roger Louis. Britain and Germany in Africa: Imperial rivalry and colonial rule (1967) online.
• Gjersø, Jonas Fossli (2015). "The Scramble for East Africa: British Motives Reconsidered, 1884–95". Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History. 43 (5): 831–860. doi:10.1080/03086534.2015.1026131. S2CID 143514840.
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• Henderson, W.O. The German Colonial Empire, 1884–1919 (London: Frank Cass, 1993)
• Hinsley, F.H. ed. The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 11: Material Progress and World-Wide Problems, 1870–98 (1962) contents pp. 593–40.
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• Lewis, David Levering. The race to Fashoda : European colonialism and African resistance in the scramble for Africa (1988) online
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Primary sources

• Brooke-Smith, Robin. Documents And Debate: The Scramble For Africa (Macmillan Education, 1987) online
• Chamberlain. M.E. The Scramble for Africa (2nd ed. 1999) pp 94-125 online

Vigaŵa vya kuwaro

• Osborn, Andrew (13 July 2002). "Belgium exhumes its colonial demons". The Guardian.
• Gülstorff, Torben (2016). Trade follows Hallstein? Deutsche Aktivitäten im zentralafrikanischen Raum des Second Scramble (Thesis). Berlin. doi:10.18452/17628.
• Fischer, Hilke (25 February 2015). "130 years ago: carving up Africa in Berlin". Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 6 June 2021.

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