List of presidents of the Philippines

Under the present Constitution of the Philippines, the president of the Philippines (Filipino: Pangulo ng Pilipinas) is both the head of state and the head of government, and is the commander-in-chief of the country's armed forces.

Here is the list of the country's presidents.

Presidents

The colors indicate the political party affiliation of each individual.

Key

Party		English name	Abbreviation
	Kapisanan ng Paglilingkod sa Bagong Pilipinas	Association for Service to the New Philippines	KALIBAPI
	Kilusang Bagong Lipunan	New Society Movement	KBL
	Laban ng Makabayang Masang Pilipino	Struggle of the Patriotic Filipino Masses	LAMMP
	Lakas ng Tao–Kabalikat ng Malayang Pilipino–Christian Muslim Democrats	People Power–Partner of the Free Filipino–Christian Muslim Democrats	Lakas–Kampi–CMD
	Lakas ng Tao–National Union of Christian Democrats	People Power–National Union of Christian Democrats	Lakas–NUCD
	Liberal Party		Liberal
	Nacionalista Party	Nationalist Party	Nacionalista
	Partido Demokratiko Pilipino–Lakas ng Bayan	Philippine Democratic Party–People's Power	PDP–Laban
	United Nationalist Democratic Organization		UNIDO
	Non-partisan	—

Prior to the First Republic

The Spaniards colonized the Philippines as the Captaincy General of the Philippines. The Spanish monarchy was represented by the Governor-General from 1565 to 1898. Spain ceded all of its remaining possessions, including the Philippines, save for Cuba at the end of the Spanish–American War via the Treaty of Paris.

1899–1901: First Republic (Malolos Republic)

The First Philippine Republic was inaugurated on January 23, 1899 at Malolos, and ended on March 23, 1901 when President Emilio Aguinaldo was captured by the Americans at Palanan.

President of the First Philippine Republic (Malolos Republic)^[1]

No. overall [note 1]	No. in era	Portrait	Name (Birth–Death)	Prior office	Took office	Left office	Party		Term [note 2]	Vice President	Refs.
1	1		Emilio Aguinaldo 1869–1964 (Lived: 94 years)	President of the Revolutionary Government (1898–1899)	23 Jan 1899	23 Mar 1901 [note 3] [note 4]		Non-partisan	(1899) 1 (1899)	None [note 5]	[14] [15]

The Americans had already begun controlling areas not controlled by the First Republic after the Spanish cession. The President of the United States is represented first by military governors, then by civilian Governors-General up to 1935.

1935–46: Commonwealth

The Commonwealth was inaugurated on November 15, 1935 at Manila, and ended upon independence on July 4, 1946.

Presidents of the Philippine Commonwealth^[1]

No. overall [note 1]	No. in era	Portrait	Name (Birth–Death)	Prior office	Took office	Left office	Party		Term [note 2]	Vice President	Refs.
2	1		Manuel L. Quezon 1878–1944 (Lived: 65 years)	Senator from the Fifth Senatorial District and 1st President of the Senate (1916–1935)	15 Nov 1935 [note 6]	1 Aug 1944 [note 7] [note 8]		Nacionalista	(1935) 2 (1935)	Sergio Osmeña	[19] [20] [21] [18]
									(1941) 3 (1941) (1944)
4 [note 9]	2		Sergio Osmeña 1878–1961 (Lived: 83 years)	1st Vice President of the Philippines (1935–1944)	1 Aug 1944	28 May 1946 [note 10] [note 11]		Nacionalista		Vacant [note 12]	[22] [23] [18]
5	3		Manuel Roxas 1892–1948 (Lived: 56 years)	Senator and 2nd President of the Senate (1945–1946)	28 May 1946	15 Apr 1948		Liberal [note 13]	(1946) 5 (1946) [note 9]	Elpidio Quirino	[26] [27] [24]

1943–45: Second Republic

The Second Republic was inaugurated on October 14, 1943 in Manila, and ended when President Jose P. Laurel dissolved the republic on August 17, 1945, in Tokyo.

President of the Second Philippine Republic^[1]

No. overall [note 1]	No. in era	Portrait	Name (Birth–Death)	Prior office	Took office	Left office	Party		Term [note 2]	Vice President	Refs.
3	1		José P. Laurel 1891–1959 (Lived: 68 years)	10th & 17th Minister of the Interior (1922–1923 & 1942–1943)	14 Oct 1943 [note 14]	17 Aug 1945 [note 15] [note 4]		KALIBAPI [note 16]	(1943) 4 (1943)	None [note 17]	[34] [37]

1946–72: Third Republic

The Third Republic started when independence was granted by the Americans on July 4, 1946, and ended upon the imposition of martial law by President Ferdinand Marcos on September 21, 1972.

Presidents of the Third Philippine Republic^{[1][note 18]}

No. overall [note 1]	No. in era	Portrait	Name (Birth–Death)	Prior office	Took office	Left office	Party		Term [note 2]	Vice President	Refs.
5	1		Manuel Roxas 1892–1948 (Lived: 56 years)	Senator and 2nd President of the Senate (1945–1946)	28 May 1946	15 Apr 1948 [note 19]		Liberal [note 13]	(1946) 5 (1946) (1948)	Elpidio Quirino	[26] [27] [24]
Vacant April 15–17, 1948											[40]
6	2		Elpidio Quirino 1890–1956 (Lived: 65 years)	2nd Vice President of the Philippines (1946–1948)	17 Apr 1948	30 Dec 1953 [note 10]		Liberal [note 20]		Vacant [note 12] 17 Apr 1948–30 Dec 1949	[42] [43] [24] [41]
									(1949) 6 (1949)	Fernando Lopez 30 Dec 1949–30 Dec 1953
7	3		Ramon Magsaysay 1907–1957 (Lived: 49 years)	7th Secretary of National Defense (1950–1953)	30 Dec 1953	17 Mar 1957 [note 21]		Nacionalista	(1953) 7 (1953) (1957)	Carlos P. Garcia	[46] [47] [48]
8	4		Carlos P. Garcia 1896–1971 (Lived: 74 years)	4th Vice President of the Philippines (1953–1957)	18 Mar 1957	30 Dec 1961 [note 10]		Nacionalista		Vacant [note 12] 18 Mar– 30 Dec 1957	[49] [50] [48] [51]
									(1957) 8 (1957)	Diosdado Macapagal 30 Dec 1957–30 Dec 1961
9	5		Diosdado Macapagal 1910–1997 (Lived: 86 years)	5th Vice President of the Philippines (1957–1961)	30 Dec 1961	30 Dec 1965 [note 10]		Liberal	(1961) 9 (1961)	Emmanuel Pelaez	[52] [53] [54]
10	6		Ferdinand Marcos 1917–1989 (Lived: 72 years)	Senator (1959–1965) and 11th President of the Senate (1963–1965)	30 Dec 1965	25 Feb 1986 [note 10] [note 22]		Nacionalista	(1965) 10 (1965)	Fernando Lopez 30 Dec 1965–23 Sep 1972 [note 23]	[60] [61] [62] [63] [9]
									(1969) 11 [note 24] [note 25] (1969)
										None [note 26] 23 Sep 1972–25 Feb 1986
								KBL	(1981) 12 [note 27] (1981)

1972–87: Martial law and the Fourth Republic

President Ferdinand Marcos ruled by decree when he declared martial law on September 21, 1972. He inaugurated the "New Society" after a new constitution was ratified on January 17, 1973. He declared the Fourth Republic on January 17, 1981, after martial law was lifted.

Presidents of the Fourth Philippine Republic^{[1][note 28]}

No. overall [note 1]	No. in era	Portrait	Name (Birth–Death)	Prior office	Took office	Left office	Party		Term [note 2]	Vice President	Refs.
10	1		Ferdinand Marcos 1917–1989 (Lived: 72 years)	Senator (1959–1965) and 11th President of the Senate (1963–1965)	30 Dec 1965	25 Feb 1986 [note 10] [note 22]		okay	(1965) 10 (1965)	Fernando Lopez 30 Dec 1965–23 Sep 1972 [note 23]	[60] [61] [62] [63] [9]
									(1969) 11 [note 24] [note 25] (1969)
										None [note 26] 23 Sep 1972–25 Feb 1986
								KBL	(1981) 12 [note 27] (1981)
11	2		Corazon Aquino 1933–2009 (Lived: 76 years)	none (No prior elected office)	25 Feb 1986 [note 29]	30 Jun 1992		UNIDO	(1986) 13 (1986)	Salvador Laurel	[67] [68] [59]

1987–present: Fifth Republic

President Corazon Aquino inaugurated the Fifth Republic after the present constitution was ratified. The plebiscite took place on February 2, 1987.

Presidents of the Fifth Philippine Republic^{[1][note 30]}

No. overall [note 1]	No. in era	Portrait	Name (Birth–Death)	Prior office	Took office	Left office	Party		Term [note 2]	Vice President	Refs.
11	1		Corazon Aquino 1933–2009 (Lived: 76 years)	none (No prior elected office)	25 Feb 1986 [note 29]	30 Jun 1992		UNIDO	(1986) 13 (1986)	Salvador Laurel	[67] [68] [59]
12	2		Fidel Ramos 1928–2022 (Lived: 94 years)	18th Secretary of National Defense (1988–1991)	30 Jun 1992	30 Jun 1998		Lakas–NUCD	(1992) 14 (1992)	Joseph Estrada	[70] [71] [72]
13	3		Joseph Estrada Born 1937 (87 years old)	9th Vice President of the Philippines (1992–1998)	30 Jun 1998	20 Jan 2001 [note 31] [note 4]		LAMMP	(1998) 15 (1998) (2001)	Gloria Macapagal Arroyo	[74] [75] [76]
14	4		Gloria Macapagal Arroyo Born 1947 (77 years old)	10th Vice President of the Philippines (1998–2001)	20 Jan 2001	30 Jun 2010		Lakas–NUCD–UMDP Lakas–CMD		Vacant [note 12] 20 Jan– 7 Feb 2001	[77] [78] [76] [79]
										Teofisto Guingona Jr. 7 Feb 2001–30 Jun 2004
								Lakas–CMD Lakas Kampi CMD	(2004) 16 (2004)	Noli de Castro [note 32] 30 Jun 2004–30 Jun 2010
15	5		Benigno Aquino III 1960–2021 (Lived: 61 years)	Senator (2007–2010)	30 Jun 2010	30 Jun 2016		Liberal	(2010) 17 (2010)	Jejomar Binay	[80] [81] [82]
16	6		Rodrigo Duterte Born 1945 (79 years old)	Mayor of Davao City (1988–1998; 2001–2010; & 2013–2016)	30 Jun 2016	30 Jun 2022		PDP–Laban	(2016) 18 (2016)	Leni Robredo	[83]
17	7		Bongbong Marcos Born 1957 (66 years old)	Senator (2010– 2016)	30 Jun 2022	Incumbent		PFP	(2022) 19 (2022)	Sara Duterte	[84][85][86]

Notes

1. In chronological order, the presidents started with Manuel L. Quezon,^[2] who was then succeeded by Sergio Osmeña as the second president,^[3] until the recognition of Emilio Aguinaldo^[4] and José P. Laurel's^[5] presidencies in the 1960s.^{[subnote 1]} With Aguinaldo as the first president and Laurel as the third, Quezon and Osmeña are thus listed as the second and the fourth, respectively.^[1][6]
2. For the purposes of numbering, a presidency is defined as an uninterrupted period of time in office served by one person. For example, Manuel L. Quezon was elected in two consecutive terms and is counted as the second president (not the second and third).^{[subnote 2]} Upon the death of the fifth president, Manuel Roxas, Elpidio Quirino became the sixth president even though he simply served out the remainder of Roxas' term and was not elected to the presidency in his own right.
3. Term ended when Aguinaldo was captured by US forces in Palanan, Isabela, during the Philippine–American War.^{[6][subnote 3]}
4. Later sought election or re-election to a non-consecutive term.^{[subnote 4]}
5. The Malolos Constitution did not provide for a vice president.^[13]
6. Term began with the formal establishment of the Philippine Commonwealth.^{[16][subnote 2]}
7. Died, in office, of tuberculosis in Saranac Lake, New York.^[17]
8. Term was originally until 15 Nov 1943, due to constitutional limitations as provided by the 1940 amendment of the 1935 Constitution, which shortened the terms of the president and the vice president from six to four years but allowed re-election.^{[subnote 4]} Quezon was not intended to serve the full four years of the second term he won in the 1941 election because a ten-year presidency would have been considered excessive. In 1943, however, due to World War II, he and Vice President Osmeña, who was also re-elected, had to take an emergency oath of office, extending their tenure.^[6][18]
9. See § 1943–45: Second Republic.
10. Unseated (lost re-election).^{[subnote 4]}
11. Sought an election for a full term, but was unsuccessful.
12. Prior to the ratification of the 1987 Constitution, there was no mechanism by which a vacancy in the vice presidency could be filled.^[12][11] Gloria Macapagal Arroyo was the first president to fill such a vacancy under the provisions of the Constitution when she appointed Teofisto Guingona Jr.
13. The Liberal Party was not yet a party in itself at the time, but only a wing of the Nacionalista Party.^[24] It split and became a separate party by 1947.^[25]
14. Term began with the establishment of Japan's puppet Second Republic after it occupied the Philippines during World War II.^[28][29] The Commonwealth continued its existence as a government in exile in Australia and the United States.^[16][30] The Philippines had two concurrent presidents by this time:^[6] a de jure (the Commonwealth president) and a de facto (Laurel).^[31] Because of his status, he was not considered a legitimate president by the government succeeding the second republic until the 1960s.^[5]
15. Term ended when he dissolved the Second Republic in the wake of Japan's surrender to the Allies two days prior.^{[5][29][subnote 1]} The Commonwealth was re-established in the Philippines,^[28] with Sergio Osmeña as the fourth president.^{[6][subnote 5]}
16. Previously affiliated with the Nacionalista Party,^[34] but was elected by the National Assembly under the Japanese-organized KALIBAPI, a "non-political service organization" as it described itself.^[35] All pre-war parties were replaced by the KALIBAPI.^[5][28]
17. The 1943 Constitution did not provide for a vice president.^[13][36]
18. The Third Republic began when the Philippine Commonwealth ended on 4 July 1946.^[6][38]
19. Died, in office, of a heart attack in Clark Air Base, Pampanga.^[39]
20. The Liberal Party was split into two opposing wings for the 1949 election: the Avelino wing, led by presidential aspirant José Avelino, and the Quirino wing.^[41]
21. Died, in office, in a plane crash in Mount Manunggal, Cebu.^[44][45]
22. Deposed in the People Power Revolution.^{[subnote 6]}
23. Term ended upon Marcos' declaration of martial law.^{[13][subnote 7][subnote 8]}
24. Imposed martial law, as a self-coup, on 23 September 1972, through Proclamation No. 1081, shortly before the end of his second and final term in 1973.^{[subnote 7]} General Order No. 1, which detailed the transfer of all powers to the president, was also issued, enabling Marcos to rule by decree.^[64]
25. Served concurrently as prime minister from June 12, 1978 to June 30, 1981.^{[60][subnote 8]}
26. The 1973 Constitution was amended through a plebiscite held on January 27, 1984 to re-establish the vice presidency.^{[13][66][subnote 8]}
27. The 1973 Constitution, as amended in 1981, did not place restrictions on re-election.^{[subnote 4]}
28. Martial law was lifted by Ferdinand Marcos on 17 January 1981 through Proclamation No. 2045,^[64] marking the beginning of the Fourth Republic.^[38]
29. Assumed presidency by claiming victory in the disputed 1986 snap election.^{[subnote 6]}
30. Corazon Aquino promulgated a provisional constitution called the 1986 Freedom Constitution on 25 March 1986.^[69] It remained in effect until it was supplanted by the current constitution on February 2, 19 87,^[69] which ushered the Fifth Republic.^[6]
31. The Supreme Court declared Estrada had resigned and thus vacate the office of the president following the Second EDSA Revolution.^[73]
32. Allied with the Koalisyon ng Katapatan at Karanasan sa Kinabukasan (Coalition of Truth and Experience for Tomorrow).^[79]

1. The Second Republic was later declared by the Supreme Court of the Philippines as a de facto, illegitimate government on 17 September 1945.^[5] Its laws were considered null and void;^[5][6] despite this, Laurel was included in the official roster of Philippine presidents in the 1960s.^[5]
2. Emilio Aguinaldo would be counted as the second president if he had won the 1935 election because the presidency was abolished and remained defunct until November 15, 1935. During that period, the executive power was exercised by the Governor-General of the US military government and the Insular Government, the precursor of the Philippine Commonwealth.^[7]
3. Aguinaldo took the oath of allegiance to the US nine days later, effectively ending the republic.^[8]
4. Before the ratification of the 1981 amendment of the 1973 Constitution, which removed the limit on re-election to the office for another six-year term,^[9][10] presidents were elected to a four-year term with the possibility of re-election, as the amended 1935 Constitution specified: "No person shall serve as [p]resident for more than eight consecutive years."^[11] When the 1987 Constitution was imposed and, in effect, superseded the previous constitutions, the president is no longer eligible for any re-election. It does, however, allow a person who had assumed the presidency to seek for a full six-year term if he or she has not yet "served as such for more than four years".^[12]
5. The Commonwealth had already been temporarily restored in Tacloban on 23 October 1944, during the Battle of Leyte,^[32] before it was proclaimed "reestablished as provided by law" on 27 February 1945.^[33]
6. Ferdinand Marcos and Corazon Aquino both took their oath of office on 25 February 1986. In effect, the Philippines again had two simultaneous presidents, albeit for nine hours only.^[55] Marcos was proclaimed on February 15 the winner of the widely denounced February 7 snap election,^[55][56] which he called after opposition leader Benigno Aquino Jr., his chief rival and Corazon's husband, was assassinated in 1983.^[57] However, in a separate NAMFREL tally dated February 16, Aquino was found the actual duly-elected president.^[58][59] The events led to the People Power Revolution on February 22–25, which forced Marcos to leave to exile in Hawaii and installed Aquino to the office.^[55][57][59]
7. Accounts differ on when martial law was officially established. While sources such as Raymond Bonner have written that Proclamation No. 1081 was signed on 23 September 1972, Primitivo Mijares, a former journalist for Marcos, and the Bangkok Post stated that it was on September 17, only postdated to September 21 because of Marcos' numerological beliefs that were related to the number seven. Marcos claimed to have signed it on September 21, and as of 9 p.m. Philippine Standard Time (UTC+08:00) on September 22, the country was under martial law. He formally announced it in a live television and radio broadcast on September 23. The official date when martial law was set was on September 21 (because it was a date that was divisible by seven), but September 23 is generally considered the correct date because it was when the nation was informed and thus the proclamation was put into full effect.^[64]
8. On 17 January 1973, while martial law was still in effect, the 1973 Constitution was ratified, which suspended the 1935 Constitution and ended the Third Republic.^[13][38] What Marcos called a New Society (Bagong Lipunan) began,^[38] introducing a parliamentary form of government;^[65] the vice presidency was abolished and the presidential succession provision was devolved to the prime minister.^[13]

References

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    • "1935 Constitution amended". Official Gazette. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Archived from the original on 29 June 2016. Retrieved 21 June 2016.
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26. "Manuel Roxas". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Archived from the original on November 4, 2012. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
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28. Jose, Ricardo T. (1997). Afterword. His Excellency Jose P. Laurel, President of the Second Philippine Republic: Speeches, Messages and Statements, October 14, 1943 to December 19, 1944. By Laurel, José P. Manila: Lyceum of the Philippines in cooperation with the José P. Laurel Memorial Foundation. ISBN 978-971-91847-2-0. Archived from the original on May 16, 2016. Retrieved June 18, 2016 – via Presidential Museum and Library.
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30. Agoncillo & Guerrero 1970, p. 415 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFAgoncilloGuerrero1970 (help)
31. "Today is the birth anniversary of President Jose P. Laurel". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Archived from the original on May 5, 2016. Retrieved June 18, 2016.
32. "Sergio Osmeña: Remembering the Grand Old Man of Cebu". National Historical Commission of the Philippines. September 4, 2012. Archived from the original on August 20, 2016. Retrieved July 23, 2016.
33. MacArthur, Douglas (February 27, 1945). "Speech of General Douglas MacArthur upon turning over to President Sergio Osmena the full powers and responsibilities of the Commonwealth Government under the Constitution". Official Gazette. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Archived from the original on August 17, 2016. Retrieved July 24, 2016.
34. "Jose P. Laurel". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Archived from the original on March 23, 2016. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
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36. "The 1943 Constitution". Official Gazette. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Archived from the original on August 5, 2016. Retrieved June 22, 2016.
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38. "Third Republic". Official Gazette. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Archived from the original on June 5, 2016. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
39. "Heart Attack Fatal to Philippine Pres. Roxas". Schenectady Gazette. Manila. April 16, 1948. Retrieved June 16, 2016.
40. "The ritual climbing of the main stairs of..." Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. November 16, 2012. Archived from the original on December 7, 2013. Retrieved July 21, 2016 – via Tumblr. On the morning of April 17, 1948, Vice President Elpidio Quirino–fresh off a coast guard cutter from the Visayas–ascended the staircase to pay his respects to the departed President Manuel Roxas, and to take his oath of office as [p]resident of the Philippines. The country had been without a [p]resident for two days.
41. PCDSPO 2015, pp. 80–82 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFPCDSPO2015 (help)
42. "Elpidio Quirino". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Archived from the original on November 4, 2012. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
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44. "Death Anniversary of President Ramon Magsaysay". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. March 17, 2013. Archived from the original on May 23, 2016. Retrieved June 16, 2016.
45. "Magsaysay Dead in Plane Crash". St. Petersburg Times. Manila: Times Publishing Company. March 18, 1957. Retrieved June 16, 2016.
46. "Ramon Magsaysay". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Archived from the original on May 14, 2016. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
47. PCDSPO 2015, p. 209 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFPCDSPO2015 (help)
48. PCDSPO 2015, pp. 85–88 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFPCDSPO2015 (help)
49. "Carlos P. Garcia". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Archived from the original on November 4, 2012. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
50. PCDSPO 2015, p. 210 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFPCDSPO2015 (help)
51. PCDSPO 2015, pp. 91–93 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFPCDSPO2015 (help)
52. "Diosdado Macapagal". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Archived from the original on November 4, 2012. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
53. PCDSPO 2015, p. 211 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFPCDSPO2015 (help)
54. PCDSPO 2015, pp. 96–98 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFPCDSPO2015 (help)
55. Reaves, Joseph A. (February 26, 1986). "Marcos Flees, Aquino Rules". Chicago Tribune. Manila: Tribune Publishing. Archived from the original on October 10, 2017. Retrieved July 9, 2016.
56. "Resolution No. 38". Official Gazette. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. February 15, 1986. Archived from the original on April 16, 2016. Retrieved July 9, 2016.
57. Chandler & Steinberg 1987, pp. 431–442 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFChandlerSteinberg1987 (help)
58. "1986 Tally Board". National Citizens' Movement for Free Elections. February 16, 1986. Archived from the original on August 9, 2016. Retrieved July 9, 2016.
59. PCDSPO 2015, pp. 132–134 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFPCDSPO2015 (help)
60. "Ferdinand E. Marcos". Presidential Museum and Library. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. Archived from the original on August 26, 2012. Retrieved June 15, 2016.
61. PCDSPO 2015, p. 212 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFPCDSPO2015 (help)
62. PCDSPO 2015, pp. 101–104 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFPCDSPO2015 (help)
63. PCDSPO 2015, pp. 108–110 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFPCDSPO2015 (help)
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