Antisemitism in Europe

Antisemitism,^[1] also known as Judeophobia,^[2] has a long history in Europe.^[3] The worst instance of antisemitism in Europe's history is the Holocaust.^[4] The adjective of antisemitism is antisemitic. Those who hold antisemitic views are called antisemites.^[5]

Overview

Map of expulsions of Jews from various European regions, ca. 1100–1600.

Main articles: Jews § History, Inquisition, and Spanish Inquisition

20th Century

Main articles: Pogrom and The Protocols of the Elders of Zion

Adolf Hitler (1889–1945) shaking hands with Alberto Vassallo-Torregrossa (1865–1959), a high-ranking Vatican clergy in Bavaria, Nazi Germany.

The Holocaust

Main articles: The Holocaust, Nazi Germany, Adolf Hitler, and List of Nazi concentration camps

Further information: Nazism, Mein Kampf, Kristallnacht, and Babi Yar

A poster from the Nazi puppet state Slovak Republic: "Do not be a servant to the Jew: he who associates with a Jew will sink down to his level."

The Holocaust was a genocide^[6] committed by Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945 during World War II. It was known as the Final Solution. The Nazis' plan was to rid Europe of Jews. They succeeded in killing up to 67% of Jews – at least 6,000,000.^[4] The planning of the Holocaust was rooted in antisemitism.^[4][7]

21st century

In a 2013 survey of 5,847 Jews in Europe, 76% thought that antisemitism had increased in the previous five years, while 29% had thought about moving countries as they felt unsafe.^[8] A 2023 ADL survey found that as many as one-third of Western Europeans believed in stereotypes of Jews. This was reportedly worse in some eastern European countries, particularly Hungary (37%), Poland (35%) and Russia (26%).^[9] In Eastern Europe, the level of antisemitism is found to be high.^[10] The cause of persistent antisemitism in Europe is under debate.^[11][12]

Antisemitism in Europe (Polling agency: ADL)^[13]

Country	% population holding biases against Jews (95% confidence level)[13]
Greece	69	69
Armenia	58	58
Poland	45	45
Bulgaria	44	44
Serbia	42	42
Hungary	41	41
Belarus	38	38
France	37	37
Azerbaijan	37	37
Lithuania	36	36
Romania	35	35
Croatia	33	33
Bosnia and Herzegovina	32	32
Georgia	32	32
Russia	30	30
Moldova	30	30
Spain	29	29
Montenegro	29	29
Latvia	28	28
Austria	28	28
Slovenia	27	27
Belgium	27	27
Germany	27	27
Switzerland	26	26
Estonia	22	22
Portugal	21	21
Ireland	20	20
Italy	20	20
Iceland	16	16
Norway	15	15
Finland	15	15
Czech Republic	13	13
Denmark	9	9
United Kingdom	8	8
Netherlands	5	5
Sweden	4	4

Croatia

20th century

Main articles: Ante Pavelić, Ustaše, and Independent State of Croatia

21st century

Croatian Wikipedia

See the main article: Croatian Wikipedia

Between 2009 and 2021, Croatian Wikipedia was controlled by a group of far-right administrators who promoted Holocaust denial by censoring^[14][15] the war crimes of the pro-Nazi Ustaše-ruled Independent State of Croatia (NDH)^[16] and blocking dozens of rule-abiding users for trying to remove the false content.^[14]

Željko Jovanović, the Minister of Science of Croatia back then, also advised against the use of the Croatian Wikipedia.^[17] The most serious violation by the far-right administrators was their anti-historical designation of the Jasenovac concentration camp, in which 77,000–99,000 were killed,^[18] as a "collection camp".^[14] Their Holocaust denial was condemned by scholars, officials, advocacy groups and media critics.^[14]

Following a year-long investigation (2020–21) by the Wikimedia Foundation, several complicit users and administrators were either banned or demoted, with one of the administrators found to have consolidated his or her power with 80 sockpuppet accounts.^[19]

Ireland

See the main article: Antisemitism in Ireland

The banner of the pro-Nazi antisemitic^[20] Irish Catholic Blueshirts.

Pro-Nazi antisemitic^[20] Irish Catholic Blueshirts marching down the street.

Overview

Ireland has been predominantly Catholic throughout history.^[21] Just as other Catholic countries, antisemitism is deep-rooted in Ireland.^[21]

Modern period

As per specialized historians, Irish Catholics played an active role in the Catholic Spanish Inquisition's persecution of Jews (1478–1834),^[22] killing as many as 300,000 Jews over false charges of "crypto-Judaism",^[23][24] a charge slapped on Jews who were forcibly converted to Catholicism.^[23][24]

20th century

Throughout the 1930s and 1940s, pro-Nazi sentiment was common among the Irish due to their dislike of the United Kingdom,^[25] which was fighting Nazi Germany.^[25]

World War II

In July 1940, the Irish Republican Army (IRA) praised Nazi Germany as the "friends and liberators of the Irish people" in a statement, with little to no opposition from the Irish public.^[25][26] Meanwhile, the IRA worked with Nazi spies to plot attacks on British troops in Northern Ireland^[25][26] and circulated materials accusing Éamon de Valera's neutral Irish government of being owned by "Jews and Freemasons".^[25][26]

As per declassified MI5 documents, IRA leading figures Seán Russell and James O'Donovan – both veterans of the Irish War of Independence – were the main Irish contacts with Nazi Germany.^[25][26] They got Nazi weapons, plotted joint attacks on British troops and discussed with Hitler a possible German invasion of Northern Ireland to facilitate Irish "reunification".^[25][26]

As per Kurt Haller, an anti-Nazi German diplomat who testified in the Nuremberg Trials,^[26]

James O'Donovan [...] asked for German support for the occupation of Northern Ireland [. ...] seemed most interested in obtaining delivery of weapons, ammunition and explosives.

As per Erwin von Lahousen, a Nazi German general who also testified,^[26]

Frank Ryan^[27] suggest that the German invasion of Britain would be an opportune moment for the seizure of Northern Ireland [. ...] Ryan had told [Edmund] Veesenmayer^[28] that [Éamon] de Valera would support [...] provided he considered it a legitimate risk to take.

After Adolf Hitler's death on April 30, 1945, Éamon de Valera, the Prime Minister of Ireland, mourned the death of Hitler^[25][29] with backing from the Irish parliament.^[25][29] De Valera also denied reports of the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp as "anti-national propaganda", reportedly out of refusal to acknowledge that the Jews could have suffered more than the Irish.^[30]

21st century

2010s

Further information: Disinformation, Conspiracy theory, and African Americans § History

Since 2013,^[31][32] a baseless theory, which claims that "Irish slaves" existed in 17th century North America before the arrival of African slaves, has been made popular by Neo-Nazis and Holocaust deniers^[31][32] in both Ireland and the United States.^[31][32] The theory is sometimes called the "Irish slaves myth". The myth reportedly originated from the book To Hell Or Barbados: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ireland written by Irish journalist Seán O'Callaghan (1918–2000)^[31][33] and published by The O'Brien Press in Dublin, Ireland.^[33]

The myth has been widely condemned by scholars as a far-right conspiracy theory downplaying the suffering of African Americans in history,^[31][32] who were enslaved until 1865, segregated until 1965 and systemically discriminated against until now.^[34] Despite To Hell Or Barbados: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ireland promoting the widely condemned far-right myth, the book is still on sale in the Sinn Féin Bookshop^[35] run by the Irish nationalist Sinn Féin party.^[35][36]

2020s

In spring 2024, antisemitism in Ireland reportedly worsened with the Israel–Hamas war's escalation, where antisemites felt justified to harass Jews under the guise of supporting Palestine, and some Irish Jewish community leaders were doubtful if Ireland was still safe^[37] for the approximately 2,700 Jews – 0.054% of the 2023 Irish population^[38] – in Ireland. In November 2024, it was revealed that textbooks teaching that

• the Jews "killed Jesus"
• Israel was "uniquely aggressive"
• the Auschwitz was a "prisoner of war camp" rather than an extermination camp
• Judaism "believed that violence and war are sometimes necessary"

were widely circulated in Irish schools^[39] and shaping children's mind.^[39] The findings were confirmed by the European Jewish Congress (EJC).^[40] Meanwhile, the Government of Ireland has not responded to the matter, nor have any strong reactions been seen from the Irish public.^[39]

Critique

David Collier, an Irish researcher in Middle East affairs,^[41] noted that antisemitism among contemporary Irish is derived from^[41]

• Religious antisemitism: Classic Christian belief that "Christians are the new Jews" as "the Jews killed Jesus"
• Political antisemitism:
  • Popularity of the Irish nationalist Sinn Féin party whose founders promoted conspiracy theories about Jews
  • Projection of anti-British sentiment onto Israel^[42] due to the belief that "Britain gave the Jews Israel" is similar to the British settler colonialism in the history of Ireland.^[43][44]

Spain

Further information: Inquisition and Spanish Inquisition

Middle Ages

Under the rule of Henry III of Castile and León (1390–1406), Jews were made to pick either baptism or death in the Iberian territories reconquered.^[45]

Modern period

A 1930 Spanish reprint of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, an influential hoax text alleging a Jewish conspiracy to control the world.

From 1478 to 1834, the Catholic Spanish Empire unleashed a systematic campaign of persecution of Jews, historically known as the Spanish Inquisition,^[23][24] due to its racist belief that Jews who converted to Catholicism (conversos) were mostly faking as Christians,^[23][24] including those forcibly converted following the Alhambra Decree, or the Edict of Expulsion.^[23][45] As many as 300,000 Jews under Catholic Spanish rule were killed over false charges of "crypto-Judaism",^[23][24] a charge slapped on Jews who were forcibly converted.^[23][24]

21st century

A graffiti on Calle del Doctor Luis Calandre in Cartagena, Spain, where the COVID-19 pandemic was depicted as a corona-mentira ("corona-lie") created by Jews symbolized by the Star of David.

For the past decade, movements within Spain have emerged to rewrite the history of the Spanish Inquisition.^[46] Members of the movements released a series of books, films, TV programs and mobile exhibitions^[46] to beautify the Inquisition-associated Spanish history.^[46]

In 2023, an ADL poll found that 26% of Spain's population held extensive antisemitic beliefs,^[47] followed by Belgium (24%), France (17%), Germany (12%) and the UK (10%).^[47]

In 2024, Spanish Jews make up 0.093% of Spain's population of 48,370,000. In April, the Observatory for Religious Freedom and Conscience found that at least 36 attacks had happened to Spanish Jews between 7 October 2023 and 19 April 2024, about six attacks per month.^[48] In July, the European Union Agency for Fundamental Rights found that 78% of Spanish Jews saw antisemitism as a big problem in Spain.^[49]

France

See the main article: Antisemitism in France

Classical antiquity

Jews have been living in France since the Roman times as one of the oldest diasporas in Europe. As France became Christianized in the late antiquity, Christian antisemitism shaped the region's culture.^[50]

Middle Ages

Massacre of Jewish people in Metz (Holy Roman Empire) during the First Crusade.

A miniature from the Grandes Chroniques de France depicting the expulsion of Jews from France in 1182. This is a photograph of an exhibit at the Diaspora Museum, Tel Aviv.

Under the Germanic Frankish Merovingian dynasty between the 5th and 8th century, Jews were banned from working as public servants.^[50] A succession of ecumenical councils also banned Jews from socializing with Christians and observing the shabbat over the unfounded fear that Judaism (the Jewish ethnoreligion) would influence Christians.^[50]

11th century

Systematic persecutions of Jews intensified in the 11th century under the Capetian dynasty, when the King of France Robert the Pious attempted to kill all Jews who rejected Christian conversion.^[50][51] Jews across the France were assaulted, tortured or burned at stakes.^[50][51] The persecutions coincided with the destruction of the original Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem by the Fatimid Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah in 1009, which was exploited by the French Benedictine monk Rodulfus Glaber to spread rumors about Jewish "involvement" to add fuel to the fire.^[52]

When the First Crusade happened in 1096, Jews were massacred by the crusaders across the Kingdom of France,^[51][52] The events were seen by some historians as genocidal massacres, the first batch in a series of which ultimately peaked in the Holocaust.^[53] The massacres all happened with the Roman Catholic Church's tacit approval.^[52][53]

Between the 1182 and 1394, at least 13 expulsion campaigns of Jews were ordered by the French monarchy,^[54] during which dozens of Black Death-associated massacres of Jews happened.^[55]

Modern period

Between the 15th century and 18th century, antisemitism in France waxed and waned.^[56] Voltaire (1694–1778), a famous French philosopher, held biases against Jews that contributed to the legitimization of modern antisemitism in Western academia.^[57][58] One of the instances of Voltaire's vocal antisemitism was his insertion of an insult into his Dictionnaire philosophique for Jewish readers:^[57]

You are calculating animals; try to be thinking animals.

Despite Voltaire's vocal antisemitism, he was regarded as the champion of Enlightenment by Western leftists.^[58]

19th century

Front page of Edouard Drumont's La Libre Parole (1893) with a caricature of a Jew grabbing the globe, implying their alleged desire to control the world. Caption: "Their Homeland".

"The Aryan breaks the chains of the Jew and the Freemason that held him captive", an 1897 satire by French journalist Augustin-Joseph Jacquet, later used by the Nazi puppet state Vichy France (1940–44) in its propaganda.

"I accuse...!" (J'accuse...!), open letter published on 13 January 1898 in the newspaper L'Aurore by French writer Émile Zola, accusing the French president Félix Faure of anti-Semitism and unlawful jailing of Alfred Dreyfus, pointing out judicial errors and lack of serious evidence.

Antisemitism was widespread in 19th century France.^[50] It was present across the political spectrum, with ancient stereotypes being phrased differently and perpetuated by their respective audience.^[59] On both sides of the spectrum, Jews were targeted for their otherness, observance of Judaism and alleged lack of loyalty or assimilation.^[59]

Among the French far left, Jews were accused of being regressive agents of capitalism exploiting the French proletariat.^[59] Among the French far right, Jews were accused of being subversive agents of communism undermining the traditional Catholic culture.^[59] Meanwhile, both the far left and far right saw Jews as undesirable under French nationalism, which prioritized national unity over minority existence.^[59][60]

Between 1882 and 1885, three antisemitic publications existed in France: L'Anti-Juif, L'Anti-Sémitique, and Le Péril sociale.^[50] In 1886, French politician Edouard Drumont published the 1,200-page tract La France juive ("Jewish France"), accusing Jews of masterminding capitalism, and calling for a race war between non-Jewish "Aryans" and Jewish "Semites". The tract was very popular in France and reprinted for 140 times within the first two years of publication.^[57]

The wave of antisemitism peaked in the deeply divisive Dreyfus affair in 1894, when Alfred Dreyfus, an Alsatian Jewish artillery officer, was falsely convicted of treason.^[60] Dreyfus was not vindicated until 1906.^[59][60]

20th century

World War II

A display at a March 1942 Vichy French exhibition alleging Jewish control of the USSR, SFIO and Western Allies.

French Jews forced to wear yellow stars in public, Paris, June 1942.

On 22 June 1940, France surrendered to Nazi Germany upon military defeat and was partitioned into the German-occupied zone, Italian-occupied zone and Vichy France – a rump state in southern France managed by pro-Nazi French collaborators.^[61] Under Vichy France's leaders Philippe Pétain and Pierre Laval, the Statut des Juifs ("Jewish Statute") – modelled after the Nazi German Nuremberg Laws – was passed between October 1940 and June 1941 to ban Jews from all jobs.^[61]

Just as in Nazi Germany, such legal persecution escalated to the deportation of Jews to extermination camps,^[61] one of the worst instances of which was the Vel' d'Hiv Roundup on 16–17 July 1942 voluntarily conducted by the Vichy French police.^[61] In total, 77,000 (33%) Jews living in France were killed in extermination camps.^[4][61]

Post-war period

Flag of the neo-fascist L'Œuvre Française ("The French Work") movement, founded by antisemite Pierre Sidos in 1968 and banned in 2013.

Flag of the neo-fascist Les Nationalistes ("The Nationalists") founded in 2015 as a successor to the L'Œuvre Française.

Antisemitism in post-war France mainly took the form of Holocaust denial and radical anti-Zionism. Pierre Guillaume, an ultra-left activist deemed an "anarcho-Marxist", published books denying the Holocaust as a "distraction from class struggle playing into the hands of Zionism and Stalinism."^[62]

Guillaume's views were co-opted by the French far right,^[62] sharing similar radical anti-Zionism, comparing the Holocaust to the Judean massacres of the Canaanites^[62] or the Native American genocide,^[63] and accusing Jews of exploiting the Holocaust to extort compensations from European countries.^[64]

A number of influential French Holocaust deniers emerged, such as Claude Autant-Lara,^[63] Maurice Bardèche,^[64] Louis-Ferdinand Céline,^[65] Paul Rassinier,^[66] François Duprat,^[67] Serge Thion,^[68] Robert Faurisson,^[69] Dieudonné M'bala M'bala^[70] and Jean-François Jalkh.^[71]

21st century

Antisemitism is still common in 21st century France,^[72] with Jews and synagogues regularly attacked.^[72] A report by Tel Aviv University and the ADL found a spike in antisemitic incidents from 436 in 2022 to 1,676 in 2023, 74% of which happened following 7 October 2023.^[73] As per the Statista, 57.4% of 2023 antisemitic incidents happened in Paris.^[74]

One of the most serious antisemitic incidents involved a 12-year-old Jewish girl being gang-raped by several boys hurling antisemitic insults and death threats.^[75] Some French Jews reported the need to adopt fake names and wear keffiyehs to pretend as Muslims in order to minimize danger.^[76]

Poland

See the main article: Racism in Poland § Jews

Further information: Jedwabne pogrom (1941)

Romania

Main articles: Iași pogrom § Interwar period, and Odessa massacre (1941) § Interwar period

Further information: Ion Antonescu and Iron Guard

Armenia

The flag of the pro-Nazi Armenian-Aryan Racialist Movement (AARM).

The logo of the Marxist-Leninist militant^[77] front Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia (ASALA).

Overview

58% of the population^[13] of Armenia^[78][79] (a Caucasian country allied with Russia,^[80] China,^[81] Iran^[82] and Syria under Bashar al-Assad^[83] who killed over 400,000 Syrians^[84][85]) are found to be hostile to Jews, including 62% of those aged 18–34. The percentages are the highest in Eastern Europe, making Armenia statistically the most antisemitic Eastern European country.^[13] Garegin Nzhdeh (1886–1955), an Armenian nationalist who recruited thousands of Armenians to fight for Nazi Germany, is still popular among Armenians.^[86][87]

20th century

From the 1930s through the Holocaust, Armenian-American media, including but not limited to the Hairenik,^[88][89] fully backed Adolf Hitler and defended the Holocaust as a "necessary surgical operation" by demonizing Jews as "poisonous elements",^[88][89] while 20,000 Armenian Nazi volunteers^[89][90] hunted for Jews and other "undesirables" on behalf of the Nazi German army.^[89][91]

21st century

Despite such history, hundreds of statues have been erected across Armenia in honor of Garegin Nzhdeh.^[86][87] Meanwhile, the only synagogue in Armenia's capital Yerevan was attacked four times in a row between 7 October 2023 and 11 June 2024.^[92] Members of the Marxist-Leninist militant^[77] front Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia^[93] (ASALA) claimed responsibility for the attacks, some of which involved the synagogue being set on fire.^[94]

Related pages

• Antiziganism
• Bosnian genocide
• Rwandan genocide
• Cambodian genocide
• Tomás de Torquemada

References

1. "Working Definition Of Antisemitism". World Jewish Congress. Retrieved October 22, 2024.
   IHRA Working Definition of Antisemitism :

   • Calling for, aiding, or justifying the killing or harming of Jews in the name of a radical ideology or an extremist view of religion.
   • Making mendacious, dehumanizing, demonizing, or stereotypical allegations about Jews as such or the power of Jews as collective — such as, especially but not exclusively, the myth about a world Jewish conspiracy or of Jews controlling the media, economy, government or other societal institutions.
   • Accusing Jews as a people of being responsible for real or imagined wrongdoing committed by a single Jewish person or group, or even for acts committed by non-Jews.
   • Denying the fact, scope, mechanisms (e.g. gas chambers) or intentionality of the genocide of the Jewish people at the hands of National Socialist Germany and its supporters and accomplices during World War II (the Holocaust).
   • Accusing the Jews as a people, or Israel as a state, of inventing or exaggerating the Holocaust.
   • Accusing Jewish citizens of being more loyal to Israel, or to the alleged priorities of Jews worldwide, than to the interests of their own nations.
   • Denying the Jewish people their right to self-determination, e.g., by claiming that the existence of a State of Israel is a racist endeavor.
   • Applying double standards by requiring of it a behavior not expected or demanded of any other democratic nation.
   • Using the symbols and images associated with classic antisemitism (e.g., claims of Jews killing Jesus or blood libel) to characterize Israel or Israelis.
   • Drawing comparisons of contemporary Israeli policy to that of the Nazis.
   • Holding Jews collectively responsible for actions of the state of Israel.
2. • Schäfer, Peter (October 1, 1998). Judeophobia: Attitudes toward the Jews in the Ancient World. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674487789. Retrieved November 3, 2024.
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   • "Magnifying glass
     Debunking Misconceptions About the Definition of Antisemitism". World Jewish Congress. Retrieved October 23, 2024. Those who hate Jews can no longer hide behind empty rhetoric
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4. • Shapiro, P.A. (2007). "Faith, murder, resurrection: The Iron Guard and the Romanian Orthodox Church". Antisemitism, Christian Ambivalence, and the Holocaust. Indiana University Press. ISBN 9780253116741. OCLC 191071016. Retrieved November 4, 2024.
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   • "Deportation of Hungarian Jews". Timeline of Events. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (USHMM). Archived from the original on 25 November 2017. Retrieved 6 October 2017.
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5. • Vidino, Lorenzo (February 8, 2023). "Intersectional Antisemitism in America". Tablet magazine. Retrieved December 16, 2024. More often, left-wing antisemites claim to be acting in the name of progressive principles while espousing the same trite tropes that depict Jews as embodiments of soulless capitalism, colonialism (Israel is cast as the last colonial state), and white privilege.
   • Sears, Oliver (2024). "Anti-Zionism' has become the new Antisemitism in Ireland". Fathom Journal. Retrieved December 16, 2024. The language I hear denouncing Zionism is identical to the language deployed by antisemites, historical and current.
   • Slater, Tom (December 9, 2024). "Who is the Guardian to call spiked 'hard right'?". Spiked. Retrieved December 16, 2024. While it smears us as right-wing extremists, it stands accused of harbouring misogynists and anti-Semites.
   • Glavin, Terry (December 11, 2024). "The Explosion of Jew-Hate in Trudeau's Canada". The Free Press. Retrieved December 16, 2024. Almost none of these verbal or physical assaults are coming from white supremacists or antisemites of the right-wing variety. They are being carried out by self-described progressives, Arabs [... .]
   • Socken, Paul (December 13, 2024). "Pity the Poor Antisemite". Jewish Journal. Retrieved December 16, 2024. The antisemite is the most extreme and enduring symptom of a society in crisis.
6. • "What is Genocide?". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (USHMM). Retrieved December 18, 2024.
   • "The ten stages of genocide". Holocaust Memorial Day Trust. Retrieved December 18, 2024.
   • "What is Genocide? | Holocaust Encyclopedia". Holocaust Encyclopedia. September 25, 2024. Retrieved December 18, 2024.
   • "5 Reasons Why the Events in Gaza Are Not "Genocide"". American Jewish Committee (AJC). December 5, 2024. Retrieved December 18, 2024.
   • "Genocide | Definition, Examples, & Facts". Britannica. December 16, 2024. Retrieved December 18, 2024.
7. • "Adolf Hitler publishes 'Mein Kampf'". Anne Frank House. July 18, 1925. Retrieved December 3, 2024.
   • "Mein Kampf: Hitler's Manifesto | Holocaust Encyclopedia". Holocaust Encyclopedia. Retrieved December 3, 2024.
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10. • "The State of Antisemitism in Eastern Europe". American Jewish Committee (AJC). December 17, 2020. Retrieved December 2, 2024.
    • "Jewish group's report finds rise in antisemitic incidents in Poland". The Times of Israel. April 25, 2023. Retrieved December 2, 2024. First survey of its kind counts 488 anti-Jewish acts in Poland in 2022, more than 4 times the total cited by the European Union the previous year
    • "Middle-East Conflict Sparks Uptick in Anti-Semitic Incidents in South-East Europe". Balkan Insight. October 23, 2023. Retrieved December 2, 2024. Ongoing violence in Israel-Palestine is being linked to an upsurge in anti-Semtitic [...] vandalism of Holocaust sites in Eastern and South-Eastern Europe.
    • "Antisemitism is deeply ingrained in European society, says EU official". The Guardian. October 30, 2023. Retrieved December 2, 2024. Remarks by rights chief come as civil society groups warn of a rise in antisemitism amid Israel-Hamas war
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11. • "How Jewish journalist Ruth Elkrief wound up in the middle of France's debate over antisemitism and Islamophobia". Jewish Telegraphic Agency (JTA). February 21, 2024. Retrieved December 26, 2024.
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    • "German MPs to name Muslim Jew-hatred as antisemitism vector". Jewish News Syndicate (JNS). November 3, 2024. Retrieved December 26, 2024.
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12. • "Antisemitism Among Migrant Populations in Europe". American Jewish Committee (AJC). Retrieved December 26, 2024.
    • Jikeli, Günther (2015). European Muslim Antisemitism: Why Young Urban Males Say They Don't Like Jews. Indiana University Press. JSTOR j.ctt16gzdvm. Retrieved December 26, 2024.
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93. • Armenian: Հայաստանի ազատագրության հայ գաղտնի բանակ
    • Azerbaijani: Ermənistanın Azadlığı üçün Gizli Erməni Ordusu
    • Georgian: სომხეთის გათავისუფლების სომხური საიდუმლო არმია
    • Greek: Μυστικός Αρμενικός Στρατός για την απελευθέρωση της Αρμενίας
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