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Western Armenian (Western Armenian: Արեւմտահայերէն, romanized: Arevmdahayeren [ɑɾɛvmədɑhɑjɛˈɾɛn])[a] is one of the two standardized[3] forms of Modern Armenian, the other being Eastern Armenian. It is based mainly on the Istanbul Armenian dialect, as opposed to Eastern Armenian, which is mainly based on the Yerevan Armenian dialect.
| Western Armenian | |
|---|---|
| Արեւմտահայերէն (Arevmdahayerēn) | |
| Native to | Turkey (Armenian Highlands), Armenia, Cyprus, Lebanon, Syria |
Native speakers | 1.6 million (2019)[1] |
Indo-European
| |
| Armenian alphabet (virtually always in the Classical Armenian orthography) | |
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-3 | hyw |
| Glottolog | homs1234 |
| Linguasphere | 57-AAA-ac |
 Map of the Armenian dialects in early 20th century: -gë dialects, corresponding to Western Armenian, are in yellow. | |
 Western Armenian is classified as Vulnerable by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger[2] | |
Until the early 20th century, various Western Armenian dialects were spoken in the Ottoman Empire, predominantly in the historically Armenian populated regions of Western Armenia. The dialectal varieties of Western Armenian currently in use include Homshetsi, spoken by the Hemshin peoples;[4] the dialects of Armenians in Kessab, Latakia and Jisr al-Shughur in Syria, Anjar in Lebanon, and Istanbul and Vakıflı, in Turkey (part of the "Sueidia" dialect). The Sasun and Mush dialects are also spoken in modern-day Armenian villages such as Bazmaberd and Sasnashen. The Cilician dialect is also spoken in Cyprus, where it is taught in Armenian schools (Nareg), and is the first language of about 3,000 people of Armenian descent.
Forms of the Karin dialect of Western Armenian are spoken by several hundred thousand people in Northern Armenia, mostly in Gyumri, Artik, Akhuryan, and around 130 villages in the Shirak province,[5] and by Armenians in Samtskhe–Javakheti province of Georgia (Akhalkalaki, Akhaltsikhe).[6]
A mostly diasporic language and one that is not an official language of any state, Western Armenian faces extinction as its native speakers lose fluency in Western Armenian amid pressures to assimilate into their host countries. According to Ethnologue, there are 1.58 million native speakers of Western Armenian, primarily in Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Lebanon, and Iraq. The language is classified as 6b (i.e., threatened, with interruptions in intergenerational transmission).[7]
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Western Armenian is an Indo-European language belonging to the Armenic branch of the family, along side Eastern and Classical Armenian. According to Glottolog, Antioch, Artial, Asia Minor, Bolu, Hamshenic, Kilikien, Mush-Tigranakert, Stanoz, Vanic and Yozgat are the main dialects of Western Armenian.[8]
Eastern Armenian and Western Armenian are, for the most part, mutually intelligible for educated or literate users of the other, while illiterate or semiliterate users of lower registers of each one may have difficulty understanding the other variant. One phonological difference is that voiced stops in Eastern Armenian are voiceless in Western Armenian.[9]
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Western Armenian is spoken by Armenians of most of the Southeastern Europe and Middle East except for Iran, and Rostov-on-Don in Russia. It is a moribund language spoken by only a small percentage of Armenians in Turkey (especially in Istanbul) as a first language, with 18 percent among the community in general and 8 percent among younger people.[10] There are notable diaspora L2 Western Armenian speakers in Lebanon (Beirut), Syria (Aleppo, Damascus), California (Fresno, Los Angeles), and France (Marseilles).[11]
Western Armenian used to be the dominant Armenian variety, but as a result of the Armenian genocide, the speakers of Western Armenian were mostly murdered or exiled. Those who fled to Eastern Armenia now speak either Eastern Armenian or have a diglossic situation between Western Armenian dialects in informal usage and an Eastern Armenian standard. The only Western Armenian dialect still spoken in Western Armenia is the Homshetsi dialect, since the Hemshin peoples, who were Muslim converts, did not fall victim to the Armenian genocide.[citation needed]
Western Armenian isn't just predominant for Armenian's in the Middle East, the Armenians living in Southeastern Europe/Balkans, mostly Bulgaria, Romania, Greece, and Turkey (Istanbul) are Western Armenian speakers, who immigrated of the Armenian Genocide. Historically there was presence of Western Armenians (Cilicians) in Moldova.
On 21 February 2009, International Mother Language Day, a new edition of the Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger was released by UNESCO in which the Western Armenian language in Turkey was defined as a definitely endangered language.[2][12]
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In modern day Armenia, there is a municipality called Gyumri, the city took host to large numbers of Armenian refugees fleeing the Ottoman Empire from the Armenian Genocide. Many of these people spoke the Karin dialect of Armenian, which is spoken in Gyumri but overtime many Eastern Armenian and Russian words have been borrowed into the dialect. There was also a wave of Armenians coming from the Middle East who were Western Armenian, who moved to the Soviet Union, mostly in Soviet Armenia. Many have assimilated into the Eastern Armenian dialect.
Endangerment and controversy
With Western Armenian being declared an endangered language, there has been recent pushback on reviving the language in Los Angeles,[13] which is home to the largest concentration of Western Armenians.
Shushan Karapetian, in her evaluation of both the Eastern and Western dialects of Armenian, concludes that heritage languages, in the face of an English dominant society, rapidly die out within no more than 2 generations, calling America a "linguistic graveyard."[14] In US census data, the percentage of people of Armenian ancestry who speak Western Armenian at home has rapidly declined, down from 25% in 1980 to 16% in 2000.[14]
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Vowels
Monophthongs
Western Armenian has eight monophthongs.
| IPA | Example (IPA) | Example (written) | Meaning | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| ɑ | [ɑɾɛv] | արեւ | "sun" | Similar to the English vowel in the word car. |
| ɛ | [ɛtʃ] | էջ | "page" | Similar to the English vowel in the word bed. |
| i | [im] | իմ | "my" | Similar to the English vowel in the word eat. |
| o | [tʃʰoɾ] | չոր | "dry" | Similar to the English vowel in bore. |
| u | [uɾ] | ուր | "where" | Similar to the English vowel in the word cool. |
| ə | [əsɛl] | ըսել | "to say" | Similar to the English vowel in the word about. |
| ʏ | [hʏɾ] | հիւր | "guest" | Similar French tu or the German vowel in the word schützen. |
| œ | [œʒɛni] | Էօժենի | a female name | This vowel sound is rare in Armenian, and is used in foreign words. |
Diphthongs
Western Armenian has ten environments in which two vowels in the orthography appear next to each other, called diphthongs. By definition, they appear in the same syllable. For those unfamiliar with IPA symbols, /j/ represents the English "y" sound. The Armenian letter "ե" is often used in combinations such as /ja/ (ya) and /jo/ (yo). If used at the beginning of a word, "ե" alone is sufficient to represent /jɛ/ (as in yes). The Armenian letter "յ" is used for the glide after vowels. The IPA /ɑj/ (like English long i) and /uj/ diphthongs are common, while /ej/ (English long a), /ij, iə/ (a stretched-out long e), and /oj/ (oy) are rare. The following examples are sometimes across syllable and morpheme boundaries, and gliding is then expected:
| IPA | Example (IPA) | Example (written) | Meaning | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| jɑ | sɛnjɑɡ | սենեակ | "room" | Similar to English yard. |
| jɛ | jɛɾɑz | երազ | "dream" | Similar to English yell. |
| ji | mɑjis | Մայիս | "May" | Similar to English year. |
| jo | jotə | եօթը | "seven" | Similar to English yore. |
| ju | ɡɑjun | կայուն | "firm" | Similar to English Yule |
| aj | majɾ | մայր | "mother" | Similar to English my or mine. |
| ej | tej | թէյ | "tea" | Similar to English day. |
| iə | iənɑl | իյնալ | "to fall" | Similar to English near, in non-rhotic dialects. |
| oj | χoj | խոյ | "ram" | Similar to English toy. |
| uj | kujr | քոյր | "sister" | Somewhat like English gooey. |
Consonants
This is the Western Armenian Consonantal System using letters from the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), followed by the corresponding Armenian letter in brackets.
| Labial | Alveolar | Palato -(alveolar) | Velar | Uvular | Glottal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nasal | m ⟨մ⟩ | n ⟨ն⟩ | |||||
| Stop | aspirated | pʰ ⟨բ, փ⟩[16] | tʰ ⟨դ, թ⟩[16] | kʰ ⟨գ, ք⟩[16] | |||
| voiced | b ⟨պ⟩[17] | d ⟨տ⟩[17] | ɡ ⟨կ⟩[17] | ||||
| Affricate | aspirated | tsʰ ⟨ձ, ց⟩[16] | tʃʰ ⟨չ, ջ⟩[16] | ||||
| voiced | dz ⟨ծ⟩[17] | dʒ ⟨ճ⟩[17] | |||||
| Fricative | unvoiced | f ⟨ֆ⟩ | s ⟨ս⟩ | ʃ ⟨շ⟩ | χ ⟨խ⟩ | h ⟨հ, յ⟩[15] | |
| voiced | v ⟨վ, ւ, ու, ո⟩[15] | z ⟨զ⟩ | ʒ ⟨ժ⟩ | ʁ ⟨ղ⟩ | |||
| Approximant | l ⟨լ⟩ | j ⟨յ, ե, ի⟩[15] | |||||
| Flap | ɾ ⟨ռ, ր⟩[18] | ||||||
The /f/ in Armenian is rare; the letter "ֆ" was added to the alphabet much later. The /w/ glide is not used except for foreign proper nouns, like Washington (by utilizing the "u" vowel, Armenian "ու").
Differences from Classical Armenian
Differences in phonology between Western Armenian and Classical Armenian include the distinction of stops and affricates.
Firstly, while Classical Armenian has a three-way distinction of stops and affricates (one voiced and two voiceless: one plain and one aspirated), Western Armenian has kept only a two-way distinction (one voiced and one aspirated). For example, Classical Armenian has three bilabial stops (/b/ ⟨բ⟩, /p/ ⟨պ⟩, and /pʰ/ ⟨փ⟩), but Western Armenian has only two bilabial stops (/b/ ⟨պ⟩ and /pʰ/ ⟨բ⟩/⟨փ⟩).
Secondly, Western Armenian has both changed the Classical Armenian voiced stops and voiced affricates to aspirated stops and aspirated affricates and replaced the plain stops and affricates with voiced consonants.
Specifically, here are the shifts from Classical Armenian to Western Armenian:
- Bilabial stops:
- merging of Classical Armenian /b/ ⟨բ⟩ and /pʰ/ ⟨փ⟩ as /pʰ/
- voicing of Classical /p/ ⟨պ⟩ to /b/
- Alveolar stops:
- merging of Classical Armenian /d/ ⟨դ⟩ and /tʰ/ ⟨թ⟩ as /tʰ/
- voicing of Classical /t/ ⟨տ⟩ to /d/
- Velar stops:
- merging of Classical Armenian /ɡ/ ⟨գ⟩ and /kʰ/ ⟨ք⟩ as /kʰ/
- voicing of Classical /k/ ⟨կ⟩ to /ɡ/
- Alveolar affricates:
- merging of Classical Armenian /dz/ ⟨ձ⟩ and /tsʰ/ ⟨ց⟩ as /tsʰ/
- voicing of Classical /ts/ ⟨ծ⟩ to /dz/
- Post-alveolar affricates:
- merging of Classical Armenian /dʒ/ ⟨ջ⟩ and /tʃʰ/ ⟨չ⟩ as /tʃʰ/
- voicing of Classical /tʃ/ ⟨ճ⟩ to /dʒ/
As a result, a word like [dʒuɹ] 'water' (spelled ⟨ջուր⟩ in Classical Armenian) is cognate with Western Armenian [tʃʰuɹ] (also spelled ⟨ջուր⟩). However, [tʰoɹ] 'grandson' and [kʰaɹ] 'stone' are pronounced similarly in both Classical and Western Armenian.
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Western Armenian uses Classical Armenian orthography, also known as traditional Mashtotsian orthography. The Armenian orthography reform, commonly known as the Abeghian orthography, was introduced in the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic and is still used by most Eastern Armenian speakers from modern Armenia. However, it has not been adopted by Eastern Armenian speakers of Iran and their diaspora or by speakers of Western Armenian, with the exception of periodical publications published in Romania and Bulgaria while under Communist regimes.
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Nouns
Western Armenian nouns have four grammatical cases: nominative-accusative (subject / direct object), genitive-dative (possession / indirect object), ablative (origin) and instrumental (means). Of the six cases, the nominative and accusative are the same, except for personal pronouns, and the genitive and dative are the same, meaning that nouns have four distinct forms for case. Nouns in Armenian also decline for number (singular and plural).
Declension in Armenian is based on how the genitive is formed, since all other cases are consistent. There are several declensions, but one is dominant (the genitive in i) while a half-dozen other forms are in gradual decline and are being replaced by the i-form, which has virtually attained the status of a regular form:
| դաշտ / tašd (field) | կով / gov (cow) | |||
| singular | plural | singular | plural | |
| Nom-Acc (Ուղղական-Հայցական) | դաշտ / tašd | դաշտեր / tašder | կով / gov | կովեր / gover |
| Gen-Dat (Սեռական-Տրական) | դաշտի / tašdi | դաշտերու / tašderu | կովու / govu | կովերու / goveru |
| Abl (Բացառական) | դաշտէ / tašde | դաշտերէ / tašdere | կովէ / gove | կովերէ / govere |
| Instr (Գործիական) | դաշտով / tašdov | դաշտերով / tašderov | կովով / govov | կովերով / goverov |
| գարուն / karun (Spring) | օր / or (day) | Քոյր / kuyr (sister) | ||||
| singular | plural | singular | plural | singular | plural | |
| Nom-Acc (Ուղղական-Հայցական) | գարուն | գարուններ | օր | օրեր | քոյր | քոյրեր |
| Gen-Dat (Սեռական-Տրական) | գարնան | գարուններու | օրուայ | օրերու | քրոջ | քոյրերու |
| Abl (Բացառական) | գարունէ | գարուններէ | օրուընէ | օրերէ | քրոջմէ | քոյրերէ |
| Instr (Գործիական) | գարունով | գարուններով | օրով | օրերով | քրոջմով | քոյրերով |
| մայր / mayr (mother) | Աստուած / Asdvadz (God) | գիտութիւն / kidutiun (science) | ||||
| singular | plural | singular | plural | |||
| Nom-Acc (Ուղղական-Հայցական) | մայր | մայրեր | Աստուած | աստուածներ | գիտութիւն | գիտութիւններ |
| Gen-Dat (Սեռական-Տրական) | մօր | մայրերու | Աստուծոյ | աստուածներու | գիտութեան | գիտութիւններու/
գիտութեանց |
| Abl (Բացառական) | մօրմէ | մայրերէ | Աստուծմէ | աստուածներէ | գիտութենէ | գիտութիւններէ |
| Instr (Գործիական) | մօրմով | մայրերով | Աստուծմով | աստուածներով | գիտութեամբ/
գիտութիւնով |
գիտութիւններով |
Articles
Like English and some other languages, Armenian has definite and indefinite articles. The indefinite article in Western Armenian is /mə/, which follows the noun:
ator mə ('a chair', Nom.sg), atori mə ('of a chair', Gen.sg)
The definite article is a suffix attached to the noun, and is one of two forms, either -n (when the final sound is a vowel) or -ə (when the final sound is a consonant). When the word is followed by al (ալ = also, too), the conjunction u (ու), or the present or imperfect conjugated forms of the verb em (to be); however, it will always take -n:
- kirkə ('the book', Nom.sg)
- karin ('the barley' Nom.sg)
but:
- As kirkn e ('This is the book')
- Parin u charə ('The good and the bad')
- Inkn al ('S/he too')
The indefinite article becomes mən when it is followed by al (ալ = also, too) or the Present or imperfect conjugated forms of the verb em (to be):
- kirk mə ('a book', Nom.sg)
but:
- As kirk mən e ('This is a book')
- Kirk mən al ('A book as well')
Adjectives
Adjectives in Armenian do not decline for case or number, and precede the noun:
- agheg martə ('the good man', Nom.sg)
- agheg martun ('to the good man', Gen.sg)
Verbs
Verbs in Armenian are based on two basic series of forms, a "present" form and an "imperfect" form. From this, all other tenses and moods are formed with various particles and constructions. There is a third form, the preterite, which in Armenian is a tense in its own right, and takes no other particles or constructions.
The "present" tense in Western Armenian is based on three conjugations (a, e, i):
| sirel (to love) |
xōsil (to speak) |
gartal (to read) | |
| yes (I) | sirem | xōsim | gartam |
| tun (you.sg) | sires | xōsis | gartas |
| an (she/she/it) | sirē | xōsi | garta |
| menk (we) | sirenk | xōsink | gartank |
| tuk (you.pl) | sirēk | xōsik | gartak |
| anonk (they) | siren | xōsin | gartan |
The present tense (as we know it in English) is made by adding the particle gə before the "present" form, except the defective verbs em (I am), gam (I exist, I'm there), unim (I have), kidem (I know) and gərnam (I can), while the future is made by adding bidi:
- Yes kirk′ə gə gartam (I am reading the book or I read the book, Pres)
- Yes kirk′ə bidi gartam (I will read the book, Fut).
For the exceptions: bidi əllam, unenam, kidnam, garenam (I shall be, have, know, be able). In vernacular language, the particle "gor" is added after the verb to indicate present progressive tense. The distinction is not made in literary Armenian.
- Yes kirk′ə gə gartam gor (I am reading the book)[19]
The verb without any particles constitutes the subjunctive mood, such as "if I eat, should I eat, that I eat, I wish I eat":
| Sing. | Pl. | |
|---|---|---|
| 1st | Udem (if I eat etc) |
Udenk′ (if we eat) |
| 2nd | Udes (if you eat) |
Udēk′ (if you all eat) |
| 3rd | Udē (if it eats) |
Uden (if they eat) |
Personal pronouns
In informal speech, the accusative case has merged with the dative case, so the accusative of 'I' would be ինծի, the accusative of 'you' would be քեզի, and so on. Speech which retains the accusative is usually seen as more formal and prestigious.
| Nominative | Accusative | Genitive | Dative | Ablative | Instrumental |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ես 'I' | զիս | իմ | ինծի | ինձմէ / ինծմէ | ինձմով / ինծմով |
| դուն 'you' | քեզ | քու | քեզի | քեզմէ | քեզմով |
| ինք 'she/he/it' | զինք | իր | իրեն | իրմէ | իրմով |
| ան 'she/he/it' | զայն | անոր | անոր | անկէ | անով |
| մենք 'we' | մեզ | մեր | մեզի | մեզմէ | մեզմով |
| դուք 'you' | ձեզ | ձեր | ձեզի | ձեզմէ | ձեզմով |
| իրենք 'they' | զիրենք | իրենց | իրենց | իրենցմէ | իրենցմով |
| անոնք 'they' | զանոնք | անոնց | անոնց | անոնցմէ | անոնցմով |
Demonstrative pronouns
| Proximal | Medial | Distal | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | Singular | Plural | |
| Nominative | ասիկա | ասոնք | ատիկա | ատոնք | անիկա | անոնք |
| Accusative | ասիկա | ասոնք | ատիկա | ատոնք | անիկա | անոնք |
| Genitive | ասոր | ասոնց | ատոր | ատոնց | անոր | անոնց |
| Dative | ասոր | ասոնց | ատոր | ատոնց | անոր | անոնց |
| Ablative | ասկէ | ասոնցմէ | ատկէ | ատոնցմէ | անկէ | անոնցմէ |
| Instrumental | ասով | ասոնցմով | ատով | ատոնցմով | անով | անոնցմով |
Relative pronouns
The accusative case is hardly seen in both formal and informal speech; it has merged with the dative.
| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| Nominative | որ | որոնք |
| Accusative | զոր | զորոնք / զորս |
| Genitive | որու(ն) | որոնց |
| Dative | որուն | որոնց |
| Ablative | որմէ | որոնցմէ |
| Instrumental | որ(մ)ով | որոնցմով |
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- Pronounced Arevmtahayeren [ɑɾɛvmətɑhɑjɛˈɾɛn] in Eastern Armenian and spelled արևմտահայերեն in reformed orthography.
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