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In Christian theology, synergism refers to the cooperative effort between God and humanity in the process of salvation. Before Augustine of Hippo (354–430), synergism was almost universally endorsed. It characterized the so-called Semi-Pelagian position. It also characterized the position of the Second Council of Orange (529), often referred to as Semi-Augustinian. Synergism is affirmed by both the Catholic Church, and Eastern Orthodoxy. It is also present in various Protestant denominations, such as Anabaptist Churches, and is particularly prominent in those influenced by Arminian theology, such as the Methodist Churches.
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Synergism comes from the Greek syn (with) and ergon (work) and refers to two or more sources working together.[1] In Christian theology, it describes the cooperative effort between God and humanity in the process of salvation.[2][3] It implies a free human participation in salvation.[4]
Before Augustine (354–430), the synergistic view of salvation was almost universally endorsed.[5]
Pelagius (c. 354–418), however, argued that humans could perfectly obey God by their own will.[6] The Pelagian view is therefore referred to as "humanistic monergism".[7][8] This view was condemned at the Council of Carthage (418) and Ephesus (431).[9]
In response, Augustine proposed a view in which God is the ultimate cause of all human actions, a stance that aligns with soft determinism.[10] The Augustinian view is therefore referred to as "divine monergism".[11] However, Augustinian soteriology implied double predestination,[12] which was condemned by the Council of Arles (475).[13]
During this period, a moderate form of Pelagianism emerged, later termed Semi-Pelagianism. This view asserted that human will initiates salvation, rather than divine grace.[14] The Semi-Pelagian view is therefore described as "human-initiated synergism".[15]
In 529, the Second Council of Orange addressed Semi-Pelagianism and declared that even the inception of faith is a result of God’s grace.[16][17][18] This highlights the role of prevenient grace enabling human belief.[19][20] This view, often referred to as "Semi-Augustinian," is therefore described as "God-initiated synergism".[21][22][23][24] The Council also rejected predestination to evil.[25]
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Semi-Pelagianism holds that a person can initiate faith independently, without prevenient grace, while its continuation through regeneration depends on God’s grace.[26][14][27] This has led to its characterization as "human-initiated synergism".[15] After the Reformation, Reformed theologians used the term "Semi-Pelagianism" to describe both "Semi-Pelagianism" and "Semi-Augustininianism," the latter being a divine-initiated synergism.[24][28]
Synergism is an important part of the salvation theology of the Catholic Church.[29] Following the Second Council of Orange (529),[20] the Council of Trent (1545–63) reaffirmed the resistibility of prevenient grace and its synergistic nature.[30] The Catechism of the Catholic Church (1992) teaches that the ability of the human will to respond to divine grace is itself conferred by grace.[31][32] This synergistic process applies to both justification and sanctification.[33][34] The sacraments of the Catholic Church such as baptism and the Eucharist, are part of God's grace and are thus a vital element in the synergistic process of salvation.[35]
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In Eastern Orthodox theology, God's grace and the human response work together in a "cooperation" or "synergy".[36] This perspective has historically presented less theological tension on this issue compared to the Christian West.[37] In the salvation process, divine grace always precedes any human action.[38] Man possesses libertarian freedom (as implied by the Gnomic will) and must consciously respond to divine grace.[39] This understanding is similar to the Arminian protestant synergism.[40] The Orthodox synergistic process of salvation includes baptism as a response to divine grace.[41] Deification, or theosis is also an integral part of this process.[42]
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Anabaptists hold to synergism,[44] teaching that "both God and man play real and necessary parts in the reconciling relationship which binds them."[45] Anabaptists have a high view of the moral capacities of humans when "enlivened by the active agency of the Holy Spirit".[45]
Martin Luther (1483-1546) limited monergism strictly to soteriological aspects.[46] He asserted that monergism applied to both election (to salvation) and reprobation.[47][48] Philip Melanchthon (1497-1560), however, rejected monergism after Luther's death in favor of synergism.[49] Melanchthon's stance influenced many Lutherans of his time throughout Europe to adopt synergism.[50] The "synergistic controversy" arose when Gnesio-Lutherans, citing Luther's monergistic stance, opposed John Pfeffinger's synergistic views on the role of human will in conversion.[51]
By 1580, Melanchthon's view had lost prominence, and the Book of Concord (1580) affirmed soteriological monergism in relation to election (to salvation), but explicitly rejected its application to reprobation.[52] Accordingly, the contemporary Lutheran Church continues to uphold this view.[53][54] While monergism remains the official stance, Lutheran history includes both monergist and synergist views.[55][53]
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In orthodox Reformed theology, divine monergism is understood as operating through an exhaustive divine providence.[56] For example, Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531) viewed that everything, including human salvation and reprobation, was determined by God.[57] In contrast, "libertarian Calvinism", a revision described by Oliver D. Crisp in his book Deviant Calvinism (2014), is a soteriological monergism.[58] Historically, this perspective has remained a minority view within Calvinism.[59]
In Anglican Churches there is a reformed monergistic view of salvation,[60] but also a synergistic one.[61]
Christians who adhere to Arminian theology, such as Methodists, believe that salvation is synergistic.[62] Jacobus Arminius first emphasized the role of prevenient grace, which involves a monergistic act of God, followed by "subsequent" act involving a synergistic work.[63] Thus, for Arminians, prevenient grace involves a synergistic process.[64] Similarly, John Wesley held that salvation begins with divine initiative.[65] Additionally, Wesleyan-Arminian theology teaches that both justification and sanctification are synergistic.[66] The Arminian perspective on salvation is often described as "God-initiated synergism".[65] This perspective aligns closely with the main characteristic of the early Semi-Augustinian thought.[67][24]
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