South Kivu

This article is about the current province. For the former district, see Sud-Kivu District.

South Kivu (Swahili: Jimbo la Kivu Kusini; French: Sud-Kivu) is one of 26 provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo.^[3] Its capital is Bukavu. Located within the East African Rift's western branch Albertine Rift, it is bordered to the east by Lake Kivu, Rwanda, Burundi, and Tanzania; to the west by Maniema Province; to the north by North Kivu Province; and the south by Tanganyika Province.^[4][5][6] The province covers an area of approximately 65,070 square kilometers (25,120 square miles) and has an estimated population of 7,066,400 as of 2020.^[6][7]

South Kivu Province du Sud-Kivu (French) Mkoa wa Kivu Kusini (Swahili)
Province
View of Kaziba Chiefdom
Seal
South Kivu Province
Interactive map of South Kivu Province in the Democratic Republic of the Congo
Country	Democratic Republic of the Congo
Named after	Lake Kivu
Capital and largest city	Bukavu
Government
• Body	Provincial Assembly of South Kivu
• Governor	Jean Jacques Purusi[1]
• Deputy Governor	Jean Elekano
Area
• Total	65,070 km2 (25,120 sq mi)
• Rank	17th
Population  (2020)
• Total	7,066,400
• Rank	3rd
• Density	110/km2 (280/sq mi)
License Plate Code	CGO / 22
Official language	French
National language	Swahili
HDI (2015)	0.391[2] low
Website	www.sudkivu.cd

The region has historically been inhabited by various Bantu-speaking ethnic groups, including the Bamushi, Bafuliiru, Bahavu, Banyindu,^[8][9][10] Babembe, Babuyu, Balega, Babwari,^[11][12][13] Baholoholo, Banyanga, Bavira, Bakusu, Batembo, Barongeronge, and Baswaga, as well as Pygmy communities.^{[14][15][16][17]} During the colonial period, the borders of the Congo Free State were established by the 1885 Berlin Conference, placing all of Lake Kivu and both banks of the Ruzizi River within the Free State.^[18] The region's boundaries were later subject to disputes, including the Kivu frontier incident of 1909, which was resolved in 1910 when the eastern portion of Kivu was allocated to Uganda Protectorate and German East Africa.^[18][19][20] Kivu District was formally created in 1912 and later divided into Sud-Kivu and Nord-Kivu Districts in 1951.^[21][22] After a series of administrative reorganizations, South Kivu became a separate province in 1988, alongside North Kivu and Maniema.^[23][24]

Administratively, South Kivu is divided into eight territories—Fizi, Idjwi, Kabare, Kalehe, Mwenga, Shabunda, Uvira, and Walungu—which are further subdivided into sectors and chiefdoms.^[4] The province contains four officially recognized cities: Bukavu, Uvira, Baraka, and Kamituga.^[25][26] Its economy is primarily based on agriculture, livestock farming, trade, and services.^{[27][28][29][30]} Significant natural and cultural landmarks include the Kahuzi-Biéga National Park and Itombwe Nature Reserve, both designated UNESCO World Heritage Sites, as well as Idjwi Island, Lake Kivu beaches, and Kavumu Airport.

Since the First Congo War (1996–1997), South Kivu has experienced persistent armed conflict and instability, particularly during the Second Congo War (1998–2003).^[31][32][33] The province has been a battleground for various armed groups, including the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL), the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA), Congolese Rally for Democracy (RCD),^[31][34] Mai-Mai local community-based militias as well as March M23 Movement (M23), RED-Tabara, Twirwaneho, Ngumino, and Android.^[35][36][37] Ongoing insecurity, fueled by competition over natural resources has led to widespread human rights abuses, displacement of civilians, and humanitarian crises.^[38][39][40]

Geography

Kahuzi-Biéga National Park, South Kivu, October 2017

South Kivu is situated in the eastern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, forming part of the African Great Lakes region. It shares borders with North Kivu to the north, Maniema to the west, and Tanganyika to the south. To the east, the province is bounded by Rwanda, Burundi, and Tanzania.^[4][41] The landscape is predominantly mountainous, with the Mitumba Mountain range covering a significant portion of the province. Mount Kahuzi, standing at 3,308 meters above sea level, is the highest peak in South Kivu.^[4][42] The province also encompasses the Albertine Rift Valley, which includes the Ruzizi Plain, as well as Lakes Kivu and Tanganyika.^[4] In contrast, the western part of the province, particularly Shabunda Territory, consists of low-lying regions extending from the Maniema plateau, sloping gently toward the Congo River basin.^[4]

Hydrology

The province is home to two major lakes—Lake Kivu and Lake Tanganyika. Lake Kivu, situated at an altitude of 1,470 meters, is one of the deepest lakes in Africa and the second deepest in the world after Russia's Lake Baikal.^[4][43] However, its ichthyofaunal biodiversity remains comparatively constrained due to the pervasive presence of dissolved carbon dioxide and methane gas.^[4] In contrast, Lake Tanganyika, which reaches a depth of 773 meters, is rich in fish and supports fishing activities in the region. These two lakes are connected by the Ruzizi River, which runs along the province's eastern border.^[4] Other significant rivers include the Elila and Ulindi Rivers,^[25] with many originating from the eastern mountain ranges before draining westward into the Lualaba River. Most of the province's rivers belong to the Congo River Basin, although some flow directly into its lakes.^[4] Lake Kivu contains an estimated 45 billion cubic meters of dissolved methane gas in its deep waters, presenting both an energy resource and a potential environmental hazard.^[25]

The province hosts four hydroelectric power stations—Ruzizi I, Ruzizi II, Kyimbi (Bendera), and Mungombe—while the Magembe micro-power plant in Fizi Territory remains inoperative.^[25] South Kivu is also endowed with considerable petroleum reserves, with oil deposits identified along the western littoral of Lake Kivu, within its subaqueous substratum, and across the Ruzizi Plain and Lake Tanganyika.^[25] Ongoing exploratory endeavors are being undertaken in Katanga, particularly at the confluence of the Mutambala River in Baraka, alongside similar research in Karamba, near the Nemba River, where bituminous hydrocarbon residues containing an 80% carbon composition have been extracted since 2020.^[25] Peat deposits are similarly exploited in multiple locales, including Kakonda (Kabare Territory) and Nyangezi, Chiherano, and Kachandja (Walungu Territory).^[25]

The province is prone to seasonal flooding, particularly during the rainy season, which frequently disrupts infrastructure and settlements.^{[44][45][46][47]}

Rice farming in the Ruzizi Plain

Relief and geology

South Kivu's topography varied, with the eastern region dominated by the Mitumba mountain range, which often rises above 3,000 meters in elevation.^[48][49][50] The central and western parts of the province are marked by high and low plateaus, respectively.^[48] The eastern highlands form part of the Albertine Rift, a geological depression that includes both Lake Kivu and Lake Tanganyika.^{[48][51][52][53]}

The province's geology is divided into three main groups: basement terrains, volcanic terrains, and cover terrains. The basement terrains, primarily found in the western and central parts of the province, date back to the Middle Carboniferous period.^[48] These areas, which make up more than 70% of the province, are rich in valuable minerals like cassiterite, gold, columbite-tantalite (coltan), and wolframite, which have been mined since the colonial era.^[48] Volcanic terrains near Bukavu are dominated by basaltic rocks and ancient lava flows, particularly in the INERA-Mulungu region.^[48]

Ruzizi River, July 2010

In addition to its volcanic terrain, South Kivu contains extensive sedimentary basins, such as the Lake Kivu and Ruzizi Plain Basin, which have accumulated mineral-rich deposits over time. These include valuable resources such as gold, columbite-tantalite, diamonds and wolframite as well as tin, monazite, limestone, cassiterite, methane gas and thermal waters.^[54][55][56] The province's soil composition varies by region: Kabare, Idjwi, and Walungu territories have predominantly clayey soils, though these are increasingly degraded due to erosion and overpopulation, leading to frequent land disputes and a decline in livestock farming.^[4] While Idjwi still retains fertile agricultural land, population pressures have made arable land scarce. Kalehe Territory has rich clay soils, benefiting from its proximity to forests and containing small gold deposits.^[4] In contrast, the territories of Shabunda, Mwenga, and Fizi have sandy soils that support agriculture while also holding significant mineral wealth, including tin, gold, cassiterite, and coltan. Uvira Territory features sandy soils ideal for rice and cotton cultivation, while its high plateaus provide favorable conditions for livestock farming due to their mild climate.^[4]

Climate

South Kivu's mountainous eastern region, including Bukavu, experiences a temperate climate with mild temperatures. The dry season lasts from June to September, with an average annual temperature of 19°C in Bukavu.^[48] Higher altitudes, such as the Minembwe, Mulenge, Kalonge, and Kahuzi-Biéga mountains, experience cooler temperatures. These areas support grassy mountain vegetation with distinct layers.^[48]

The central and western parts of the province, particularly Shabunda Territory and Mwenga Territory, have a tropical rainforest climate, characterized by dense equatorial forests and abundant rainfall throughout the year.^[48] The Ruzizi Plain, however, experiences a microclimate with a tropical climate and relatively low rainfall (approximately 1,000 mm per year). Kabare, Walungu, Kalehe, Idjwi, and Bukavu territories experience a distinct two-season cycle: a dry season lasting three months (June to September) and a rainy season lasting nine months.^[48] The dry season is marked by high temperatures and a scarcity of rainfall, particularly in marshy areas. However, deforestation, environmental degradation, and population growth are increasingly disrupting the rainfall patterns in these regions.^[48] Forested areas such as Fizi, Mwenga, and Shabunda, located near the equatorial forest, receive heavy rainfall year-round. Uvira, apart from its highlands, has also seen declining rainfall and rising temperatures due to population growth and environmental destruction.^[48]

The region's vegetation is characterized by a grassy savannah with thorns and Myrtillocactus geometrizans, most notably in the Kahuzi-Biéga National Park.^[48]

Administrative divisions

Approximate correspondence between historical and current province

Belgian Congo				Republic of the Congo		Zaire		Democratic Republic of the Congo
1908	1919	1932	1947	1963	1966	1971	1988	1997	2015
22 districts	4 provinces	6 provinces	6 provinces	21 provinces + capital	8 provinces + capital	8 provinces + capital	11 provinces	11 provinces	26 provinces
Bas-Uele	Orientale	Stanleyville	Orientale	Uele	Orientale	Haut-Zaïre		Orientale	Bas-Uele
Haut-Uele									Haut-Uele
Ituri				Kibali-Ituri					Ituri
Stanleyville				Haut-Congo					Tshopo
Aruwimi
Maniema		Costermansville	Kivu	Maniema	Kivu		Maniema
Lowa
Kivu				Nord-Kivu			Nord-Kivu
				Kivu-Central			Sud-Kivu

South Kivu is administratively structured into a decentralized system that balances governance between the central government, provincial authorities, and localized territorial entities. The province is hierarchically divided into several administrative subdivisions, including territories, cities, communes, sectors, and chiefdoms.^[57] Both the province and decentralized territorial entities (Entités Territoriales Décentralisées; ETDs) possess legal personality, allowing them to manage economic, human, financial, and technical resources autonomously.^[57]

Territories

See also: Territories of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

The province is composed of eight territories,^[4][58][59] each governed by a Territorial Administrator, who is assisted by two Assistant Territorial Administrators. These officials, appointed by the Ministry of the Interior and Security, are responsible for implementing state policies and overseeing governance in remote or rural areas.^[60][48] The province's administration is further supervised by the provincial governor, who acts as the President's representative in South Kivu.^[60][48]

The territories in South Kivu include:^[4][58][59]

• Fizi Territory
• Idjwi Territory
• Kabare Territory
• Kalehe Territory
• Mwenga Territory
• Shabunda Territory
• Uvira Territory
• Walungu Territory

Cities

See also: Cities of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

South Kivu has four officially recognized cities: Bukavu, Uvira, Baraka, and Kamituga.^[25][26] Each city functions as a decentralized administrative entity with legal status and is led by a mayor (Burgomaster; French: Bourgmestre) and a deputy mayor, both appointed by presidential decree, following recommendations from the Minister of the Interior and Security.^[57]

Cities	Details
Bukavu	As the provincial capital and established in 1901, it was designated an urban district in 1925 and granted city status in 1958.[61] The city is divided into three communes—Bagira, Ibanda, and Kadutu—comprising 20 quarters and more than 400 avenues.[61] As the economic center of South Kivu, Bukavu's economy is primarily driven by the informal sector and small and medium-sized enterprises.[62][63] Key industries include quinine production by Pharmakina, beverage manufacturing by Bralima, and mattress production by GINKI.[63] Additional small-scale industries produce shoes, plastic containers, wood products, and artisanal soap. The city also hosts financial institutions, banks, and money transfer agencies.[63] Notably, CJX Minerals Mining, a private Congolese company founded in 2014, is the leading exporter of 3T minerals (tin, tantalum, tungsten, and gold) in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.[64]
Uvira	Historically the administrative center of Uvira Territory since 25 February 1938,[65] gained city status through a 2013 Prime Ministerial decree,[65][66] which was formally ratified by President Joseph Kabila on 27 December 2018.[67] The city's status was reinforced by Decree No. 13/029 on 13 June 2019, officially recognizing it as the second city of South Kivu after Bukavu.[68] Uvira comprises three communes: Kalundu, Mulongwe, and Kagando.[67][68] The city's economy is largely based on subsistence agriculture, with family-based farming serving as a primary means of livelihood.[69][70] Uvira is home to the Nabahya Food Institute and an International Institute of Tropical Agriculture research station, both of which contribute to agricultural development.[71][72] Due to Uvira's proximity to Lake Tanganyika, one of the world's deepest lakes, fishing is a key economic activity, providing employment for approximately 1% of the local population.[73][74] Additionally, livestock breeding and poultry farming are widespread among residents.[75][76][77]
Baraka	Situated west of the Ubwari Peninsula on the west side of Lake Tanganyika, Baraka was granted city status on 10 February 2010, and officially recognized in 2018 through Presidential Decree No. 13/29 of 13 June 2018.[78] It is the third-largest city in South Kivu and serves as the socio-economic hub of Fizi Territory.[78] Baraka is divided into three communes: Baraka (center), Katanga, and Kalundja. Its economy plays a crucial role in the financial and commercial activities of Fizi.[78]
Kamituga	Founded in 1923 by the Compagnie Minière des Grands-Lacs (MGL), Kamituga's development was driven by its role as a mining center. The city was granted official status through Decrees No. 13/029 and 13/030 of 13 June 2013, which elevated multiple agglomerations to city and municipal status.[26] However, the implementation of these decrees was suspended in 2015, reducing the number of recognized cities. Kamituga's city status was later reaffirmed in December 2018, making it the 36th city in the DRC.[26] As the administrative center of Mwenga Territory, Kamituga's growth was historically tied to the exploitation of gold-bearing gravels from the Elila River Basin.[26] Mining activities were initially managed by MGL, which merged with KIVUMINES, PHIBRAKI, and COBELMIN in 1969.[79] In 1976, the company further merged with SYMETAIN to form Société Minière et Industrielle du Kivu (SOMINKI).[79] The Congolese state held a 28% stake in SOMINKI, with the majority of shares controlled by the Empain Group.[79]

Chiefdoms and sectors

See also: Chiefdoms and sectors of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

Traditional governance structures remain significant in the province, particularly through chiefdoms (collectivités) and sectors.^[80][81] These entities reflect historical systems of local rule, where authority is often hereditary and determined by ethnic customs before being formally integrated into the state governance framework.^[80][81] The head of a chiefdom holds the title of mwami (paramount customary chief), with governance responsibilities extending to groupements, which are led by customary chiefs (chefs de groupement). Groupements are further divided into localités (villages or localities), also governed by customary chiefs.^[80][81]

Some of the notable chiefdoms and sectors in South Kivu:

• Bafuliiru Chiefdom
• Bavira Chiefdom
• The Ruzizi Plain Chiefdom
• Lulenge Sector
• Luindi Chiefdom
• Mutambala Sector
• Tangani'a Sector
• Ngandja Sector
• Buhavu Chiefdom
• Buloho Chiefdom
• Basile Chiefdom
• Burhinyi Chiefdom
• Luwindja Chiefdom
• Itombwe Sector
• Wamuzima Chiefdom
• Bakisi Chiefdom
• Wakabango Chiefdom
• Kaziba Chiefdom
• Ngweshe Chiefdom

Health districts

South Kivu is divided into 34 health zones (zones de santé). These are grouped into five health districts (districts de santé). These districts do not match the geography of the territories.

History

A house in Uvira, photographed in 1913

A 1913 view of the Lualaba River extending toward Buli in Katanga Province

A 1928 view of Luvungi

Before gaining political status in the 19th century, the region was inhabited by various Bantu-speaking ethnic groups, including the Bamushi, Bafuliiru, Bahavu, Banyindu,^[8][9][10] Babembe, Babuyu, Balega, Babwari,^[11][12][13] Baholoholo, Banyanga, Bavira, Bakusu, Batembo, Barongeronge, and Baswaga, along with Pygmy communities.^{[14][15][16][17]} In the late 19th century, the Banyarwanda, whose ancestors had fled Rwanda after falling out with the ruling Nyiginya dynasty, settled in the Itombwe area.^[82] Around the same period, Barundi migrants, primarily of Bahutu origin, established communities in the Ruzizi Plain, initially settling between Luvungi and Kiliba before gradually expanding northward toward Kamanyola.^[83] Meanwhile, during the scramble for Africa, European explorers were primarily focused on locating the source of the Nile, a mystery that had long intrigued European geographers.^[22] Initially, the Ruzizi River was mistakenly believed to be the Nile's source, as it was thought to drain the waters of Lake Tanganyika toward the north. However, further expeditions later confirmed that the Ruzizi River was a tributary of Lake Tanganyika rather than its emissary.^[22] The territorial boundaries of what would later become South Kivu were first delineated during the Berlin Conference of 1885, where European powers formalized their claims over African territories. The northeastern boundary of the Congo Free State was established as "a straight line coming from the northern end of Lake Tanganyika and ending at a point located on the 30th east meridian and at 1° 20' south latitude; further north, the border is formed by the 30th meridian east".^[18] Under this arrangement, all of Lake Kivu and both banks of the Ruzizi River were incorporated into the Congo Free State.^[18] The name "Kivu" gained prominence after explorer David Livingstone encountered it during his travels to Uvira in 1867 and learned the term from local inhabitants.^[22]

On 3 September 1886, Administrator General Camille Janssen issued a decree establishing nine districts within the colony, including Stanley Falls District, each governed by a district commissioner.^[84] As a result of this administrative restructuring, a territory known as Ruzizi-Kivu was integrated into Stanley Falls District.^[22] On 15 July 1898, a new decree renamed Stanley Falls District as Orientale Province, with Stanleyville (now Kisangani) as its capital.^[85]

In June 1909, the region became the site of the Kivu Frontier Incident when John Methuen Coote, a British officer from the Uganda Protectorate, established fortified camps at Burungu and Rubona on Lake Kivu.^[18] British troops under Coote withdrew from Rubona on 29 June 1909, allowing Belgian forces to take control of the post.^[19] The dispute was later resolved in May 1910, when the colonial boundaries between the Belgian Congo, the Uganda Protectorate, and German East Africa (now Rwanda) were officially settled, with eastern Kivu allocated to Uganda and Rwanda.^[20] Kivu District was formally created on 28 March 1912, through a royal decree that restructured the Congo into 22 districts.^[21][22] The newly established Kivu District was subdivided into three sectors: Lake Edward (with Beni as its administrative center), Tanganyika (Uvira), and Rutshuru (Rutshuru).^[22] In 1933, the provinces of the Belgian Congo underwent reorganization, reducing their autonomy. The newly defined provinces were renamed after their capitals, leading to the division of Orientale Province into Stanleyville Province and Costermansville Province.^[86] Costermansville Province was renamed Kivu Province in 1947,^[86] and in 1951, the Kivu District was further subdivided into Sud-Kivu, Nord-Kivu, and Maniema Districts within Kivu Province.^[22][87] The law of 27 April 1962, led to the restructuring of provinces, institutionalizing Kivu Province as an official province alongside Maniema and North Kivu.^[22] Until 1962, the province was composed of three districts. A subsequent administrative reorganization in 1963 resulted in the creation of Central Kivu Province, which included the territories of Bukavu, Kabare, Kalehe, Goma, Fizi, Rutshuru, Shabunda, and Uvira.^[22][88] On 15 November 1988, South Kivu became an independent province, separating from North Kivu and Maniema as part of further administrative decentralization.^[23][89]

Conflict and insecurity

First Congo War

See also: First Congo War

For three decades, the region has been plagued by armed conflicts and violence. Various armed groups and militias have operated in the area, leading to displacement, human rights abuses, and the disruption of essential services.^[90][91][92]

At the outset of the First Congo War, South Kivu played a key role as a battleground for the Alliance of Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Congo (AFDL), led by Laurent-Désiré Kabila. Its plateaus and hills served as strategic strongholds for the advancing AFDL forces, who aimed to pursue Hutu refugees, particularly the ex-FAR/Interahamwe, while simultaneously seeking to overthrow Mobutu's government. This response was prompted by the mistreatment of Tutsi civilians under Mobutu's regime, which subjected them to arbitrary arrests and detentions conducted by Zairian police and soldiers.^[93][94][95]

The Lemera Hospital, where the Lemera massacre took place

The AFDL's pursuit of Hutu refugees led to widespread violence and atrocities.^[96] The AFDL forces, resorting to indiscriminate killings, mass executions, and acts of torture, initiated the First Congo War with a massacre in the Lemera groupement (grouping) of South Kivu, on October 6, 1996. The massacre claimed the lives of several dozen individuals. In a hospital massacre, 37 individuals, including two medical personnel, were killed.^[94][97] On October 20, 1996, the AFDL forces killed an unknown number of refugees and Zairian civilians in Rubenga, a village in South Kivu.^[98] Another attack occurred on October 21, 1996, in Lubarika village, where an unknown number of Rwandan and Burundian refugees, along with Zairian civilians, were killed by the AFDL forces. Local people were coerced into burying the bodies in four large mass graves.^[99] In Kamanyola, on October 20, 1996, the AFDL forces killed an unknown number of refugees and Zairian civilians, disposing of their bodies in pit latrines.^[96] The AFDL persisted in launching attacks on South Kivu's refugee camps, rivers, airports, and densely populated villages. They carried out civilian executions and acts of terrorism against Zairian civilians in various locations, including Nyantende, Bukavu, Lwakabiri, Kashusha, Ulindi River, Kigulube, Ivela, Balika, Kavumu Airport, Lulingu, and Keisha.^[100][101] In May 1997, the AFDL gained control over significant parts of the country and captured the capital, Kinshasa. Mobutu fled the country and Laurent-Désiré Kabila assumed leadership, renaming the country the Democratic Republic of the Congo.^[102][103]

Second Congo War

See also: Second Congo War

From late 1997 onwards, the relationship between President Laurent-Désiré Kabila, Rwanda and the Tutsi soldiers present in the AFDL deteriorated. Laurent-Désiré Kabila's government faced multiple accusations of marginalizing Tutsi political factions, excluding them from his administration, and displaying preferential treatment toward his Katanga clan.^[104] In July 1998, driven by fears of a coup d'état, President Laurent-Désiré Kabila relieved Rwandan General James Kabarebe of his position as Chief of Staff of the AFDL, while also issuing an order for the Rwandan Patriotic Army (RPA) soldiers to withdraw from Congolese territory.^[105] In response, on 2 August 1998, a faction of Tutsi soldiers mutinied and, with the assistance of the AFDL, the Banyamulenge militias, the Ugandan army (Ugandan People's Defence Force; UPDF), and the Burundi army (Forces Armées Burundaises; FAB), launched a rebellion aimed at overthrowing President Laurent-Désiré Kabila.^[104][106] Within a few weeks, this coalition formed the Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie (RCD) and gained control over major urban centers in North and South Kivu, Orientale Province, North Katanga, and even managed to penetrate into the Équateur Province. The war resulted in wide-scale displacement, famine, and a staggering loss of lives. Numerous rebel groups and militias emerged, further intensifying the violence and leading to pervasive human rights violations, including large-scale massacres and incidents of sexual violence.^{[106][107][108]} On August 6, 1998, factions of the ANC/RPA/FAB perpetrated a massacre, claiming the lives of numerous civilians in Uvira, in South Kivu.^[109] As civilians sought shelter or attempted to flee the combat zone, they fell victim to the FAC in confrontations, resulting in hundreds of fatalities. Moreover, on the same day, members of the ANC, the armed wing of the RCD rebel, killed 13 people, including the chief of the Kiringye area, in the village of Lwiburule in South Kivu.^[109] Another massacre unfolded as elements of the ANC/RPA claimed the lives of 15 individuals in the vicinity of Kivovo, Kigongo, and Kalungwe, all situated in South Kivu. The victims suffered from dagger wounds or were shot near the primary port in Kalundu and at the facilities of SEP Congo.^[109] On August 24, 1998, RCD forces and Rwandan soldiers unleashed a massacre in Kasika and neighboring villages in South Kivu, resulting in the deaths of more than 1,000 people, as reported by the United Nations Mapping Report.^[109][110] The majority of the recovered bodies, predominantly women and children, were discovered on the 60-kilometer journey from Kilungutwe village to Kasika.^[111][112] Prior to their murders, the women were subjected to rape followed by brutal disembowelment using daggers.^[110][113] From December 30, 1998, to January 2, 1999, RCD forces committed another massacre, claiming the lives of over 800 civilians, primarily belonging to the Babembe community, in the small village of Makobola in South Kivu. Many victims endured machete attacks or were shot at close range, while others met their demise through burning or drowning in nearby rivers. Infants and young children were callously thrown into deep pit latrines, left to perish, while adults who dared to disobey orders and attempted to escape were met with bullets.^[114][115] On May 14, 2000, members of the ANC conducted a massacre resulting in 300 deaths in the village of Katogota in South Kivu.^{[116][117][118]}

The war officially ended in 2003 with the signing of the Sun City Agreement, which aimed to establish a transitional government and promote peace and stability in the DRC. However, sporadic violence and conflicts in the region persisted even after the official end of the war.^[105]

War and human rights

The Banyamulenge, who actively aligned themselves with the AFDL and RCD factions throughout the duration of the Second Congo War, have been subject to widespread disdain among many Congolese due to their alleged involvement in a range of nefarious activities. These accusations include launching assaults on refugee camps and densely populated villages, engaging in civilian executions, and orchestrating acts of terrorism targeting Zairian civilians across various regions of South and North Kivu. Consequently, a considerable number of Congolese view the Banyamulenge as unwelcome intruders encroaching upon their native territories, thereby intensifying the deep-rooted animosity directed towards them.^[119][120]

Victims of sexual violence in the town Bunyakiri in the Kalehe Territory of the South Kivu Province, August 2010

The UN estimates that in 2005, approximately 45,000 women were raped in South Kivu.^[121] It forms various armed groups, including the Rwandan-backed armed groups, Banyamulenge armed groups, Raia Mutomboki, Mai-Mai militias, ADF (Allied Democratic Forces) and FDLR. There have been numerous accounts and allegations of sexual violence perpetrated by members of the Congolese army (Forces Armées de la République Démocratique du Congo; FARDC) in eastern Congo. The 10th Military Region of the newly established Congolese military, led by General Pacifique Masunzu, whose undisciplined former factional soldiers are responsible for human rights violations due to a continuing culture of impunity for military personnel, compounded by challenging living conditions, inadequate remuneration, and insufficient training.^{[90][92][122]} Masunzu is Munyamulenge (South Kivu Banyamulenge Tutsi) who broke with the Rwandan-backed Rally for Congolese Democracy (RCD) back in 2003. He was formerly commander of the 122nd Brigade in the Minembwe area, who in 2005 rebelled against the authorities in defence of the Congolese Banyamulenge, against harassment and physical abuse. Also previously former second in command of 4th Military Region in Kasai-Occidental. Africa Confidential said in 2011 that he 'clearly remains implacably opposed to the Rwandan government.'^[123][124] His deputy Colonel Baudouin Nakabaka is a former Mai-Mai fighter with close links to the FDLR. In July 2007, United Nations human rights expert Yakin Erturk called the situation in South Kivu the worst she has ever seen in four years as the global body's special investigator for violence against women. Sexual violence throughout Congo is "rampant," she said, blaming rebel groups, the armed forces and national police. Her statement included that "Frequently women are shot or stabbed in their genital organs, after they are raped. Women, who survived months of enslavement, told me that their tormentors had forced them to eat excrement or the human flesh of murdered relatives."^[125]

In June 2014, around 35 people were killed in an attack in the South Kivu village of Mutarule. The attack was apparently part of dispute over cattle.^[126]

On 7 August 2015 the 2015 South Kivu earthquake, a magnitude 5.8 earthquake, struck 35 km (22 mi) north-northeast of Kabare at a depth of 12.0 km (7.5 mi).^[127] One policeman was killed.

On July 16, 2020, the Ngumino and Twiganeho militias of the Banyamulenge community perpetrated the Kipupu massacre, which claimed the lives of 220 people in South Kivu village of Kipupu, as reported by provincial lawmakers.^[128][129]