Sultanate of Golconda

The Sultanate of Golconda (Persian: سلطنت گلکنده; Urdu: سلطنت گولکنڈه) was an early modern kingdom in southern India, ruled by the Persianate,^[9] Shia Islamic Qutb Shahi dynasty^[a] of Turkoman origin.^[10][11] After the decline of the Bahmani Sultanate, the Sultanate of Golconda was established in 1518^[12] by Quli Qutb Shah, as one of the five Deccan sultanates.

Sultanate of Golconda قطب شاهیان
1518[1]–1687[2]
Flag of the Qutb Shahis
Golconda map published in 1733 Germany[4]
Capital	Golconda (1519–1591) Hyderabad (1591–1687)
Common languages	Persian (official)[5] Telugu (official after 1600)[6] Deccani Urdu
Religion	Shia Islam
Government	Monarchy
Sultan
• 1518–1543	Sultan Quli Qutb-ul-Mulk
• 1543–1550	Jamsheed Quli Qutb Shah
• 1550–1550	Subhan Quli Qutb Shah
• 1550–1580	Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah
• 1580–1612	Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah
• 1612–1626	Sultan Muhammad Qutb Shah
• 1626–1672	Abdullah Qutb Shah
• 1672–1687	Abul Hasan Qutb Shah
History
• Established	7 December 1518[7]
• Disestablished	22 September 1687[8]
Currency	Mohur, Tanka
Preceded by Succeeded by Bahmani Kingdom Gajapati Empire Vijayanagara Empire Hyderabad Subah
Today part of	India

The kingdom extended from parts of the modern-day Indian states of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha and Telangana.^[13] The Golconda sultanate was constantly in conflict with the Adil Shahis and Nizam Shahis, which it shared borders with in the seventeenth century to the west and northwest.^[14] In 1636, Mughal emperor Shah Jahan forced the Qutb Shahis to recognize Mughal suzerainty and pay periodic tributes. The dynasty came to an end in 1687 during the reign of its seventh sultan Abul Hasan Qutb Shah, when the Mughal ruler Aurangzeb arrested and jailed Abul Hasan for the rest of his life in Daulatabad, incorporating Golconda into the Mughal empire.^[15][16][14]

The Qutb Shahis were patrons of Persianate Shia culture.^[16][17] The official and court language of the Golconda sultanate during the first 90 years of its existence (c. 1518 – 1600) was also Persian. In the early 17th century, however, the Telugu language was elevated to the status of the Persian language, while towards the end of the Qut Shahis' rule, it was the primary court language with Persian used occasionally in official documents. According to Indologist Richard Eaton, as Qutb Shahis adopted Telugu, they started seeing their polity as the Telugu-speaking state, with the elites of the sultanate viewing their rulers as "Telugu Sultans".^[18]

History

The dynasty's founder, Sultan Quli Khawas Khan Hamdani was born in Hamadan, Iran. He belonged to the Qara Qoyunlu, a Turkmen Muslim tribe and therefore a descendant of Qara Yusuf.^[19][20] In the 16th century, he migrated to Delhi with his uncle, Allah-Quli, some of his relatives and friends. Later he migrated south, to the Deccan and served the Bahmani sultan, Mahmood Shah Bahmani II, who was of Deccani Muslim ethnicity.^[21][22] He declared the independence of Golconda after the disintegration of the Bahmani Sultanate into the five Deccan sultanates.^[22] He took the title Qutb Shah, and established the Qutb Shahi dynasty of Golconda. He was assassinated in 1543 by his son, Jamsheed, who assumed control of the sultanate.^[22] Jamsheed died in 1550 from cancer.^[23] Jamsheed's young son Subhan Quli Qutb Shah reigned for a year, at which time the nobility brought back and installed Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah as sultan.^[23]

Golconda, and with the construction of the Char Minar, later Hyderabad, served as capitals of the sultanate,^[22] and both cities were embellished by the Qutb Shahi sultans. The dynasty ruled Golconda for 171 years, until Aurangzeb, in his campaigns in the Deccan, conquered the Sultanate of Golconda in 1687 with the completion of his siege of Golconda.^[24] The sultante's last ruler, Abul Hasan Qutb Shah, was imprisoned in Daulatabad Fort, and the territory of the Golconda Sultanate was made into a Mughal imperial province, Hyderabad Subah.^[25][26]

Economy

Tomb of Sultan Muhammad Qutb Shah in Hyderabad.

The Golconda Sultanate was notoriously wealthy. While its primary source of revenue was a land tax,^[27] the sultanate greatly profited from its monopoly on diamond production from mines in the southern districts of the kingdom. The sultanate also had control over the Krishna and Godavari deltas, giving it access to craft production in the villages of the area, where goods like textiles were produced. The town of Masulipatnam served as the Golconda Sultanate's primary seaport for the export of diamonds and textiles. The kingdom reached the peak of its financial prosperity in the 1620s and 1630s.^[28][29]

Diamonds

Main article: Golconda diamonds

Wittelsbach-Graff Diamond first discovered by the Golconda sultanate

The Golconda Sultanate was known for its diamonds which were dubbed the Golconda diamonds. These diamonds were sought after diamonds long before the Qutb Shahi dynasty came to power, and they continued to supply this demand through European traders.^[30] Diamonds from mines (especially the Kollur Mine presently in Guntur district, Andhra Pradesh) were transported to the city of Hyderabad to be cut, polished, evaluated and sold. Golconda established itself as a diamond trading centre and until the end of the 19th century, the Golconda market was the primary source of the finest and largest diamonds in the world.^[31]

Cotton-weaving

During the early seventeenth century, a strong cotton-weaving industry existed in the Deccan region. Large quantities of cotton cloth were produced for domestic and export consumption. High-quality plain and patterned cloth made of muslin and calico was produced. Plain cloth was available in white or brown colour, in bleached or dyed variety. This cloth was exported to Persia and European countries. The patterned cloth was made of prints which were made indigenously with indigo for blue, chay-root for red coloured prints and vegetable yellow. Patterned cloth exports were mainly to Java, Sumatra and other eastern countries.^[32] Golconda had a strong trading relationship with Ayutthaya Siam.^[33]

Culture

Golkonda Painting, 1650-1670 Opaque watercolor and gold on paper Overall

The Qutb Shahis were patrons of Persianate Shia culture.^[16][17] Over the first 90 years of their rule (c. 1518 – 1600), they championed Persian culture. Their official edicts and court language were in Persian only.^[18] Quli Qutb Mulk's court became a haven for Persian culture and literature.^[14] In early 17th-century, with Sultan Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah (1580–1612) a change began. He began to patronize the Telugu language and culture as well. Edicts began to be issued both in Persian and Telugu. Towards the end of the dynasty, these were primarily in Telugu with a summary in Persian. As they adopted Telugu, they saw their territory as the Telugu-speaking region, states Indologist Richard Eaton, with their elites considering the rulers as "Telugu Sultans".^[18][34]

Sultan Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah (1580–1612) wrote poems in Dakhini Urdu, Persian and Telugu.^[17] Subsequent poets and writers, however, wrote in Urdu, while using vocabulary from Persian, Hindi and Telugu languages.^[17] During the reign of Abdullah Qutb Shah in 1634 AD, an ancient Sanskrit text on love and sex Ratirahasya by Kokkoka was translated into Persian and named Lazzat-un-Nisa (Flavors of the Woman).^[35]

Architecture

The Qutb Shahi architecture was Indo-Islamic, a culmination of Indian and Persian architectural styles.^[36] Their style was very similar to that of the other Deccan Sultanates. The Qutb Shahi rulers built the Char Minar.^[17]

Some examples of Qutb Shahi Indo-Islamic architecture are the Golconda Fort, tombs of the Qutb Shahis, Char Minar and the Char Kaman, Makkah Masjid, Khairatabad Mosque, Hayat Bakshi Mosque, Taramati Baradari and the Toli Mosque.^[36][37]

Tombs

Main article: Qutb Shahi Tombs

The tombs of the Qutb Shahi sultans lie about one kilometre north of Golkonda's outer wall. These structures are made of beautifully carved stonework, and surrounded by landscaped gardens. They are open to the public and receive many visitors.^[37]

Administration

The Bahmani Kingdom, Kandesh, and the Five Sultanates

The Qutb Shahi Kingdom was a highly centralized state. The sultan enjoyed absolute executive judicial and military powers. When he was away, a regent carried to carry on the administration on behalf of the king. The Peshwa (Prime Minister) was the highest official of the sultanate. He was assisted by a number of ministers, including Mir Jumla (finance minister), Kotwal (police commissioner), and Khazanadar (treasurer).^{[citation needed]}

For most of their reign, the Qutb Shahi sultanate had a system of jagirs, who would provide troops as well as collect taxes. They were allowed to keep a portion of the taxes and give the sultan the rest. Tax collection was through auction farms, and the highest bidder used to get the Governorship. While the Governors enjoyed a luxurious lifestyle, they had to bear the brunt of severe punishments for default, consequently, they were harsh on the people.^[32] Tana Shah – the last Sultan, with advice from his Brahmin ministers responsible for tax collection, introduced a reform whereby all taxes were collected by civil professionals for a region. The soldiers, government workers, court officials and all the Muslim elites were paid allowances from the Sultan's treasury. These reforms brought a large increase in revenues.

According to Moreland, in the earlier system, the Persian-origin Muslims were paid the highest, then the other Indian Muslims. In early 17th century, the Persian origin Muslims became rich by lending money on high interest (usury) of 4-5% per mensem much to the despair of Hindus.^[32]

The Sultanate had 66 forts, and each fort was administered by a Nayak.^[38] In the second half of the 17th century, the Qutb Shahi Sultan hired many Hindu Nayaks. According to Kruijtzer, these were mainly Brahmins. According to another account, these were mainly from the Kamma, Velama, Kapu, and Raju warrior castes.^[39] They served as civil revenue officers. After the Mughals dismissed the Qutb Shahi dynasty in 1687, these Hindu Nayaks were also dismissed and replaced with Muslim military commanders.^[40][39][41]

Administrative divisions

South Asia
1525 CE

DELHI

SULTANATE
(LODIS)

TIMURID EMPIRE
(Babur)

SHAH MIR
SULTANATE

KANGRA

PHAGMODRUPAS

KHANDESH
SULTANATE

BERAR
SULTANATE

MALWA
SULTANATE

ARGHUNS

MAKRAN
SULTANATE

LANGAH
SULTANATE

AMARKOT

JAISALMER

SHEKHAWAT

BUNDI

BIKANER

GUJARAT
SULTANATE

MEWAR

MARWAR

AMBER

KARAULI

MEWAT

SIROHI

VAGAD

DIMASA

TRIPWA

AHOM

KAMATAS

SUGAUNAS

BENGAL
SULTANATE

GAJAPATI
EMPIRE

GONDWANA

AHMADNAGAR
SULTANATE

VIJAYANAGARA
EMPIRE

BIJAPUR
SULTANATE

BIDAR
SULTANATE

GOLKONDA
SULTANATE

The Golconda Sultanate and main South Asian polities circa 1525 AD, on the eve of the establishment of the Mughal Empire.^[42]

The sultanate in 1670 comprised 21 sarkars (provinces) which in turn were divided into 355 parganas (districts).^[43][44]

S.No.	Name of Sarkar	Number of Paraganas
1	Muhammadnagar (Golconda)	22
2	Medak	16
3	Melangūr	3
4	Elangandel	21
5	Warangal	16
6	Khammamēṭ	11
7	Dēvarkoṇḍa	13
8	Pangal	5
9	Mustafanagar (Kondapalli)	24
10	Bhoṇgīr	11
11	Akarkara	6
12	Kovilkoṇdā	13
13	Ghanpura	8
14	Murtaza Nagar with three tarafs	39
15	Machilipatnam	8
16	Ellore	12
17	Rajahmundry	24
18	Chicacole (Srikakulam) with 3 tarafs	115
19	Kaulas	5
20	Nizampatnam Mahal	1
21	Karnatak including Arcot taraf (It had 16 sarkars)	162[44]

Religion

The Qutb Shahi dynasty, like many Deccan Islamic dynasties, was a Shia Muslim dynasty with roots in Persia (modern Iran). Initially, they were very strict and they persecuted the Hindus who constituted the vast majority of the population. Open practice of Hindu festivals was forbidden in the Golconda Sultanate. It was Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah who first reversed this policy, and allowed Hindus to practice their festivals and religion in the open.^[45][46]

In the final decades of their rule, the Qutb Shahi dynasty rulers patronized Shia, Sufi, and Sunni Islamic traditions, as well as Hindu traditions. Before their end, Tana Shah advised by Madanna and Akkanna –his Brahmin ministers, began the tradition of sending pearls to the Bhadrachalam Temple of Rama on Rama Navami.^[47]

List of rulers

The eight sultans in the dynasty were:

Personal Name	Titular Name	Reign		Notes
		From	Until
Sultan Quli سلطان قلی	Sultan Quli Qutb-ul-Mulk	7 December 1518	2 September 1543	Founder of Qutb Shahi Dynasty[13] Son of Uways Quli Beg Great Grand Son of Qara Yusuf
Jamsheed جمشید	Jamsheed Quli Qutb Shah	2 September 1543	22 January 1550	Second Son of Sultan Quli Qutb-ul-Mulk
Subhan سبحان	Subhan Quli Qutb Shah	22 January 1550	1550	Son of Jamsheed Quli Qutb Shah Became King at the age of 7 and died after a short time
Ibrahim ابراہیم	Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah Wali	1550	5 June 1580	Younger Son of Sultan Quli Qutb-ul-Mulk Fought the Battle of Talikota with the Alliance of Deccan Sultanates
Muhammad Ali محمد علی	Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah	5 June 1580	11 January 1612	Son of Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah Wali Founder of Hyderabad City Muhammad Ali was a Scholar in Arabic, Persian, Urdu and Telugu languages
Sultan Muhammad محمد سلطان	Sultan Muhammad Qutb Shah	11 January 1612	1626	Son of Muhammad Amin Shah Grand Son of Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah Son in Law of Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah
Abdullah عبداللہ	Abdullah Qutb Shah	1626	21 April 1672	Son of Sultan Muhammad Qutb Shah
Abul Hasan ابُل حسن	Tana Shah	21 April 1672	22 September 1687	Son in law of Abdullah Qutb Shah Defeated and jailed by Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb Alamgir in 1687 He died in prison.

Family tree

Qutb Shahi dynasty

Qara Yusuf c. 1356-1420 Sultan of Qara Qoyunlu R.1389-1420 Qara Iskander ?-1436 Sultan of Qara Qoyunlu R.1421-1429, 1431-1436 Jahan Shah 1397/1405-1467 Sultan of Qara Qoyunlu R.1438-1467 Alvand Mirza ?-1470 Mirza Yusuf ?-1469 Sultan of Qara Qoyunlu R.1468-1469 Pir Quli Beg Khadija Khatun Uways Quli Beg 1. Sultan Quli Qutb-ul-Mulk 1485-1543 Sultan of Golconda R.1512-1543 4. Ibrahim Quli Qutb Shah Wali 1518-1580 Sultan of Golconda R.1550-1580 2. Jamsheed Quli Qutb Shah ?-1550 Sultan of Golconda R.1543-1550 Mirza Muhammad Amin 5. Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah 1565-1612 Sultan of Golconda R.1580-1612 3. Subhan Quli Qutb Shah 1543-1550 Sultan of Golconda R.1550 6. Sultan Muhammad Qutb Shah 1593-1626 Sultan of Golconda R.1612-1626 Hayat Bakshi Begum ?-1667 7. Abdullah Qutb Shah 1614-1672 Sultan of Golconda R.1626-1672 8. Abul Hasan Qutb Shah ?-1699 Sultan of Golconda R.1672-1687 Badshah Bibi Khuda Banda

See also

• Hyderabad State
• Battle of Talikota

Notes

1. (Persian: قطب شاهیان; Urdu: قطب شاہی خاندان)

References

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3. For a map of their territory see: Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (1978). A Historical atlas of South Asia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 147, map XIV.4 (l). ISBN 0226742210.
4. For a map of their territory see: Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (1978). A Historical atlas of South Asia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 147, map XIV.4 (l). ISBN 0226742210.
5. Brian Spooner and William L. Hanaway, Literacy in the Persianate World: Writing and the Social Order, (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012), 317.
6. Alam, Muzaffar (1998). "The Pursuit of Persian: Language in Mughal Politics". Modern Asian Studies. 32 (2): 317–349. doi:10.1017/s0026749x98002947. S2CID 146630389. Ibrahim Qutb Shah encouraged the growth of Telugu and his successor Muhammad Quli Qutb Shah patronized and himself wrote poetry in Telugu and Dakhni. Abdullah Qutb Shah instituted a special office to prepare the royal edicts in Telugu (dabiri-ye foramina-i Hindavi). While administrative and revenue papers at local levels in the Qutb Shahi Sultanate were prepared largely in Telugu, the royal edicts were often bilingual. '06 The last Qutb Shahi Sultan, Abul Hasan Tana Shah, sometimes issued his orders only in Telugu, with a Persian summary given on the back of the farmans.
7. Sherwani, Haroon Khan (1946). The Bahmanis of the Deccan – An Objective Study. Krishnavas International Printers, Hyderabad Deccan. p. 386. OCLC 3971780.
8. 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume 3 . Vol. 3. Encyclopædia Britannica. 1911 – via Wikisource.
9. Christoph Marcinkowski, Shi'ite Identities: Community and Culture in Changing Social Contexts, 169-170; "The Qutb-Shahi kingdom could be considered 'highly Persianate' with a large number of Persian-speaking merchants, scholars, and artisans present at the royal capital."
10. Syed, Muzaffar Husain (2011). Concise History of Islam. Vij Books India Private Limited. p. 258. ISBN 978-9-382-57347-0. The Qutb Shahi dynasty was the ruling family of the sultanate of Golkonda in southern India. They were Shia Muslims and belonged to a Turkmen tribe.
11. Siddiq, Mohd Suleman. "The Da’irat-ul-Ma’arif: A Unique Language Institute of Hyderabad." In Languages and Literary Cultures in Hyderabad, pp. 203-216. Routledge, 2017.
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14. C.E. Bosworth, The New Islamic Dynasties, (Columbia University Press, 1996), 328.
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21. Yaaminey Mubayi (2022). Water and Historic Settlements:The Making of a Cultural Landscape. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781000641639.
22. George Michell, Mark Zebrowski, Architecture and Art of the Deccan Sultanates, (Cambridge University Press, 1999), 17.
23. Masʻūd Ḥusain Khān, Mohammad Quli Qutb Shah, Volume 216, (Sahitya Akademi, 1996), 2.
24. Satish Chandra, Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals, Part II, (Har-Anand, 2009), 331.
25. Eaton, Richard M. (2008). "Papadu (Fl. 1695–1710)". A Social History of the Deccan, 1300-1761. Cambridge University press. pp. 156–158.
26. Richards, J. F. (1975). "The Hyderabad Karnatik, 1687-1707". Modern Asian Studies. 9 (2): 241–260. doi:10.1017/S0026749X00004996. ISSN 0026-749X. JSTOR 311962. S2CID 142989123.
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28. Eaton, Richard Maxwell (2005). A social history of the Deccan, 1300-1761 : eight Indian lives. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 157. ISBN 0-521-25484-1. OCLC 58431679.
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30. The Market for Golconda Diamonds Has Mushroomed, New York Times
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32. Moreland, W.H. (1931). Relation of Golconda in the Early Seventeenth Century. Halyukt Society. pp. 78, 89.
33. Marcinkowski, Christoph. "Persians and Shi'ites in Thailand: From the Ayutthaya Period to the Present" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 December 2023. Retrieved 8 May 2022.
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35. Akbar, Syed (5 January 2019). "Lazzat-Un-Nisa: Hyderabad's own Kamasutra back in focus - Times of India". The Times of India. Retrieved 5 January 2019.
36. Salma Ahmed Farooqui, A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: From Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century, (Dorling Kindersley Pvt. Ltd, 2011), 181.
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40. Proceedings of Seminar on Industries and Crafts in Andhra Desa, 17th and 18th Centuries, A.D. Department of History, Osmania University. 1996. p. 57.
41. Reddy, Pedarapu Chenna (1 January 2006). Readings In Society And Religion Of Medieval South India. Research India Press. p. 163. ISBN 9788189131043.
42. Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (1978). A Historical Atlas of South Asia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 39, 147. ISBN 0226742210.
43. Nayeem, M. A. (2016). "MARITIME TRADE AND GROWTH OF URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE IN PORT CITIES OF COLONIAL ANDHRA: A STUDY OF MASULIPATNAM". The Heritage of the Qutb Shahis of Golconda and Hyderabad, Volume 1. Hyderabad Publishers. p. 22. ISBN 9788185492230.
44. Haroon Khan Sherwani (1974). "History of the Qutb Shāhī Dynasty". Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. p. 655.
45. Annemarie Schimmel, Classical Urdu Literature from the Beginning to Iqbāl, (Otto Harrassowitz, 1975), pp. 141-152
46. Islam in South Asia: Practicing tradition today, Karen G. Ruffle, South Asian Religions: Tradition and Today, ed. Karen Pechilis, Selva J. Raj, (Routledge, 2013), 210.
47. Sarma, Mukkamala Radhakrishna; Committee, Osmania University Dept of Ancient Indian History, Culture & Archaeology Felicitation; History, Osmania University Dept of (2004). Glimpses of our past--historical researches: festschrift in honour of Prof. Mukkamala Radhakrishna Sarma, former emeritus fellow. Felicitation Committee, Dept. of Ancient Indian History, Culture, and Archaeology & Dept. of History, Osmania University. p. 326.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

Sources

• Majumdar, R.C. (1974). "The Five Sultanates of the Deccan". The Mughul Empire. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.
• Sherwani, Haroon Khan (1967). "Qutub Ul Mulk". Mohammad Qutub Quli Shah, Founder of Hyderabad. Asian Publishing House.
• Sherwani, Haroon Khan (1973). History of Medieval Deccan (1295–1724) : Volume I. Government of Andhra Pradesh.

Further reading

• Chopra, R. M., The Rise, Growth And Decline of Indo-Persian Literature, 2012, Iran Culture House, New Delhi.
• Jawed Vashisht, Ghizal-e Raana (A selection of Quli Qutab Shah's ghazals)
• Jawed Vashisht, Roop Ras (Romantic poems of Quli Qutab Shah)
• Jawed Vashisht, Mohammed Quli aur Nabi ka Sadka
• Jawed Vashisht, Dakhni Darpan

External links