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The Ndu languages are the best known family of the Sepik languages of East Sepik Province in northern Papua New Guinea. Ndu is the word for 'man' in the languages that make up this group. The languages were first identified as a related family by Kirschbaum in 1922.
| Ndu | |
|---|---|
| Geographic distribution | East Sepik Province, in the Sepik River basin of Papua New Guinea |
| Linguistic classification | Sepik
|
| Subdivisions |
|
| Language codes | |
| Glottolog | nduu1242 |
Along with the Arapesh languages, Ndu languages are among the best documented languages in the Sepik basin, with comprehensive grammars available for many languages.[1]
A diagnostic innovative feature in the Ndu languages is the replacement of the proto-Sepik pronoun *wun ‘I’ with proto-Ndu *an ~ *na.[1]
Abelam is the most populous language, with about 45,000 speakers, though Iatmül is better known to the outside world. There are eight to twelve Ndu languages; Usher (2020) counts nine:[2]
- Ngala
- Ndu proper
Also sometimes distinguished are Keak (close to Iatmul or Sos Kundi), Kwasengen (or Hanga Hundi, close to Ambulas), Burui (close to Gai Kundi), and Sengo.
Most Sepik and neighboring languages have systems of three vowels, /ɨ ə a/, that are distinct only in height. Phonetic [i e u o] are a result of palatal and labial assimilation of /ɨ ə/ to adjacent consonants. The Ndu languages may take this reduction a step further: In these languages, /ɨ/ is used as an epenthetic vowel to break up consonant clusters in compound words. Within words, /ɨ/ only occurs between similar consonants, and seems to be explicable as epenthesis there as well, so that the only underlying vowels that need to be assumed are /ə/ and /a/. That is, the Ndu languages may be a rare case of a two-vowel system, the others being the Arrernte and Northwest Caucasian languages. However, contrasting analyses of these same languages may posit a dozen vowel monophthongs.[3]
For Ndu languages, the glottalized low vowel /a̭/ is often written as /aʔa/. This does not signify /a/ followed by a glottal stop and another /a/.[1]
Ndu languages mark first and second person possessors with -n, and third person possessors with -k.[1]
wunɨ-nə
1SG-POSS
mbalɨ
pig
‘my pig’
ndɨ-ku
3SG-POSS
mbalɨ
pig
‘his pig’
wun-(n)a
1SG-POSS
maːm
older.sibling
‘my elder sister’
ndɨ-kɨ-ndɨ
3SG-POSS-M.SG
yaːmb
road
‘his road’
Ndu languages make use of the general locative case suffix -mb (-m in Manambu):[1]
kwalɨ
neck
kambɨlɨ-mbə
river-LOC
‘at the source of the river’
ŋgu-aːm
water-LINK.LOC
‘in water’ Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);
Ndu languages have two dative-type case markers, with the forms and meanings varying across languages:[1]
- -t (-r in Manambu): allative meaning (‘to’ or ‘toward’)
- -k: benefactive (beneficiary or recipient) meaning
Examples of dative case markers in Ambulas and Manambu:[1]
ndu
man
mbɨrɨ
PL
takwə
woman
mbɨr-ət
PL-ALL
‘toward the men and women’
ɲjɨmba
work
yə-kwə
do-PRS
ndu-kɨ
man-BEN
‘for the men who work’
ar-aːr
lake-LINK.ALL
yi-tɨk
go-1DU.SBJ.IMP
‘Let’s both go to the lake.’ Unknown glossing abbreviation(s) (help);
Dative case markers are also used to mark animate objects of transitive verbs, which is a Sepik-Ramu areal feature. An example of the Ambulas allative case marker -t:[1]
wunɨ
1SG
ɲan-ɨt
child-ALL
kenək-kwə
scold-PRS
‘I’m scolding the child.’
| Proto-Ndu | |
|---|---|
| Reconstruction of | Ndu languages |
Pronouns
Reconstructed proto-Ndu pronouns by Foley (2005):
| sg | du | pl | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | *wɨn | *an | *nan |
| 2m | *mɨn | *mpɨr | *ŋkɨwr |
| 2f | *ɲɨn | ||
| 3m | *ntɨ | *ntəy | |
| 3f | *lɨ |
Note that there is a gender distinction for first-person pronouns.
Lexicon
A phonological reconstruction of proto-Ndu has been proposed by Foley (2005). Lexical reconstructions from Foley (2005) are listed below.[4] The homeland of proto-Ndu is located just upstream of Ambunti.[1]
| gloss | proto-Ndu | Manambu | Iatmul | Abelam | Sawos | Boiken | Ngala |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| one | *nək | nək | kɨta | nek | kɨtak | napə | nək |
| man | *ntɨw | ntiw | ntɨw | ntɨw | tɨw | riw | |
| water | *ŋkɨw | ŋkɨw | ŋkɨw | ŋkɨw | ŋkɨw | kɨw | ŋkɨw |
| rain | *mayt | war | mayk | mac | wirɨ | macɲ | mac |
| fire | *ya | ya | ya | ya | hwɨypa | ya | |
| sun | *ɲa | ɲə | ɲa | ɲa | ɲa | ɲa | |
| moon | *mpapmɨw | mpapɨw | mpwap | mpapmɨw | pwapwə | kamwɨ | |
| house | *ŋkəy | wɨy | ŋkəy | ŋkəy | ŋkay | kəy | ŋkəy |
| breast | *mɨwɲ | mɨwɲ | mɨpə | mɨwɲə | mwɨyɲ | mɨwɲ | |
| tooth | *nɨmpɨy | ɨwk | nɨmpɨy | nɨmpɨy | nɨmpɨy | nɨmpɨy | |
| bone | *apə | ap | avə | apə | yapə | ampɨ | |
| tongue | *tɨkŋa | tɨkalɨr | tɨkat | tɨkŋalɨn | tɨkŋalɨ | tɨkan | |
| eye | *mɨyR | mɨyr | mɨynɨy | mɨynɨy | mɨynɨy | mɨyl | |
| nose | *tam(w)ə | tam | tamə | tamə | tamə | tamwə | |
| leg | *man | man | man | man | man | man | rawɨ |
| ear | *wan | wan | wan | wan | wan | ||
| tree | *mɨy | mɨy | mɨy | mɨy | mɨy | mɨy | |
| name | *cɨ | cɨ | cɨ | ɨy | cɨ | cɨ | |
| pig | *mp(w)al | mpar | mpak | mpalɨ | pwalɨ | mpwal | |
| dog | *wac, *war | ac | warə | wacə | warə | pyəp | |
| snake | *kampwəy | kampay | kampwəy | kampwəy | hampwəy | mapwɨcɨ | |
| mosquito | *kɨvɨy | kɨvɨy | kɨvyə | kwɨyə | mɨkɨycɨ | cɨvyə | |
| see | *vɨ | vɨ | vɨ | vɨ | vɨ | təyf | |
| eat | *kɨ | kɨ | kɨ | kə | hə | kɨ | |
| go | *yɨ | yɨ | yɨ | yɨ | yɨ | yɨ | yɨ |
| come | *ya | ya | ya | ya | ya | ya | |
| sit | *rə | rɨ | rɨ | rə | rə | yəlkɨy | |
| stand | *rap(m) | rap | rap | rapm | rapm |
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