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Lead-antimonate inorganic pigment used in paintings From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Naples yellow, also called antimony yellow or lead antimonate yellow, is an inorganic pigment that largely replaced lead-tin-yellow and has been used in European paintings since the seventeenth century.[1][2]: 219 While the mineral orpiment is considered to be the oldest yellow pigment, Naples yellow, like Egyptian blue, is one of the oldest known synthetic pigments.[3][2]: 219 Naples yellow was used in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, finding widespread application during the Hellenistic and Roman periods.[2]: 221 Prior to its earliest occurrences in European paintings, the pigment was commonly employed in pottery, glazes, enamels, and glass.[2]: 225 The pigment ranged in hue from a muted, earthy, reddish yellow to a bright light yellow.
A Latin treatise from the late 17th century by Andrea Pozzo referred to the pigment as luteolum napolitanum, which is the first recorded use of the term "Naples yellow"; its English name first appeared in print in 1738.[4]: 76 [5] Naples yellow originally referred to the chemical compound lead antimonate (Pb2Sb2O7), but by the middle of the nineteenth century, a majority of manufacturers had stopped producing pure lead antimonate.[2]: 219 Since then, writers and artists have incorrectly used Naples yellow to refer to other lead-based yellows.[6] The related mineral of lead antimonate is bindheimite. However, this natural version was rarely employed as a pigment. After 1800, Naples yellow was superseded by chrome yellow (lead chromate) cadmium sulfide, and cobalt yellow.[1]
Naples yellow is one of the earliest synthetic pigments, its earliest uses dating from the period between the sixteenth and fourteenth century BC in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia.[8]: 219 Traces of Naples yellow have been discovered on glass fragments, glazed bricks, and glazed tiles from these ancient civilizations.[8]: 221 Since its basic components, such as lead oxide and antimony oxide, had to be chemically manufactured, its early production would have required a high level of knowledge and skill.[9]: 77 Early color theorists speculated that Naples yellow had originated from Naples or Italy's Mount Vesuvius.[10] It was not until the late eighteenth century that Naples yellow was generally recognized as a synthetic pigment of lead antimonate.[10]
The Italians first adopted Naples yellow as an enamel for tin-glazed pottery, or maiolica, from the beginning of the sixteenth century.[8]: 221 The pigment then started to appear in European paintings, and between 1750 and 1850, when it achieved greater popularity in the art world.[8]: 226 "Naples yellow" was a phrase that was first used in a treatise on frescos by Andrea Pozzo, published in Rome between 1693 and 1700. There, Pozzo refers to Naples yellow as luteolum napolitanum.[9]: 76 By 1850, Naples yellow was sold in a variety of shades, such as French Naples yellow.[8]: 223 Manufacturers like C. Roberson and Co. produced Naples yellow until 1885.[8]: 231 However, its popularity declined and it was progressively replaced by other yellow pigments like lead chromate and cadmium sulfide.[8]: 226 Manufacturers today typically produce Naples yellow in combination with other pigments, such as ochre, iron oxide, lead white, titanium white, or zinc white, rather than pure lead antimonate.[8]: 245
Naples yellow is a saturated yellow, occasionally with pink or off-white hues.[12] It has a strong hiding power and effectively covers other pigments.[12] Temperature during production affects its hue. A more vibrant lemon-yellow is produced at higher temperatures, whereas an orange-yellow is produced at lower temperatures.[13]: 227 Some manufacturers also note that there are six different shades of Naples yellow, ranging from a greenish yellow to a pinkish orange yellow.[13]: 227
Naples yellow is not a stable pigment.[14]: 76 It is susceptible to discoloration in humid air. George Field warned that Naples yellow can turn black.[14]: 77 Naples yellow can also discolor in the presence of iron.[15]: 227 Field therefore advised artists to use a palette knife made of ivory or horn, not metal.[14]: 77
Naples yellow was frequently used in ancient times to glaze pottery and glass. A piece of glass from the site of Amenhotep II's palace at Thebes (now at the Victoria and Albert Museum) is one of the earliest known examples.[16]: 248 Naples yellow has frequently appeared on the palettes of European painters such as Anton Raphael Mengs, Francisco Goya, Jacques-Louis-David, Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres, Eugène Delacroix, and Paul Cézanne.[16]: 245 The earliest occurrence of Naples yellow in European art is Matthias Stom's Arrest of Christ.[16]: 223
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