Munda language of South Asia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Santali (ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ, সাঁওতালি, ସାନ୍ତାଳୀ, सान्ताली, Pronounced: [santaɽi]) is a Munda language spoken natively by the Santal people of South Asia. It is the most widely-spoken language of the Munda subfamily of the Austroasiatic languages, related to Ho and Mundari, spoken mainly in the Indian states of Assam, Bihar, Jharkhand, Mizoram, Odisha, Tripura and West Bengal.[5] It is a recognised regional language of India as per the Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution.[6] It is spoken by around 7.6 million people in India, Bangladesh, Bhutan and Nepal, making it the third most-spoken Austroasiatic language after Vietnamese and Khmer.[5]
| Santali | |
|---|---|
| ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ সাঁওতালি ସାନ୍ତାଳୀ सान्ताली | |
 The word Santali in Ol Chiki script | |
| Native to | India, Bangladesh, Nepal |
| Ethnicity | Santal |
Native speakers | 7.6 million (2011 census[1])[2] |
Austroasiatic
| |
| Dialects |
|
| Official status | |
Official language in |
|
| Language codes | |
| ISO 639-2 | sat |
| ISO 639-3 | Either:sat – Santalimjx – Mahali |
| Glottolog | sant1410 Santalimaha1291 Mahali |
Distribution of Santali language | |
Santali was a mainly oral language until developments were made by European missionaries to write it in Bengali, Odia and Roman scripts. Eventually, the Ol Chiki script was developed by Raghunath Murmu in 1925. Ol Chiki is alphabetic, sharing none of the syllabic properties of the other Indic scripts, and is now widely used to write Santali in India.
According to linguist Paul Sidwell, Munda languages probably arrived on the coast of Odisha from Indochina about 4000–3500 years ago, and spread after the Indo-Aryan migration to Odisha.[7]
Until the nineteenth century, Santali had no written language and all shared knowledge was transmitted by word of mouth from generation to generation. European interest in the study of the languages of India led to the first efforts at documenting the Santali language. Bengali, Odia and Roman scripts were first used to write Santali before the 1860s by European anthropologists, folklorists and missionaries including A. R. Campbell, Lars Skrefsrud and Paul Bodding. Their efforts resulted in Santali dictionaries, versions of folk tales, and the study of the morphology, syntax and phonetic structure of the language.
The Ol Chiki script was created for Santali by Mayurbhanj poet Raghunath Murmu in 1925 and first publicised in 1939.[8]
Ol Chiki as a Santali script is widely accepted among Santal communities. Presently in West Bengal, Odisha, and Jharkhand, Ol Chiki is the official script for Santali literature & language.[9][10] However, users from Bangladesh use Bengali script instead.[dubious – discuss]
Santali was honoured in December 2013 when the University Grants Commission of India decided to introduce the language in the National Eligibility Test to allow lecturers to use the language in colleges and universities.[11]
Distribution of Santali language in the states of India[12]
Santali is spoken by over seven million people across India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, and Nepal, with India being its native country and having the largest number of speakers.[5] According to 2011 census, India has a total of 7,368,192 Santali speakers (including 358,579 Karmali, 26,399 Mahli).[13][14] State wise distribution is Jharkhand (2.75 million), West Bengal (2.43 million), Odisha (0.86 million), Bihar (0.46 million), Assam (0.21 million) and a few thousand in each of Chhattisgarh, and in north-eastern states Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram.[15]
The highest concentrations of Santali language speakers are in Santhal Pargana division, as well as East Singhbhum and Seraikela Kharsawan districts of Jharkhand, the Jangalmahals region of West Bengal (Jhargram, Bankura and Purulia districts) and Mayurbhanj district of Odisha.
Smaller pockets of Santali language speakers are found in the northern Chota Nagpur plateau (Hazaribagh, Giridih, Ramgarh, Bokaro and Dhanbad districts), Balesore and Kendujhar districts of Odisha, and throughout western and northern West Bengal (Birbhum, Paschim Medinipur, Hooghly, Paschim Bardhaman, Purba Bardhaman, Malda, Dakshin Dinajpur, Uttar Dinajpur, Jalpaiguri and Darjeeling districts), Banka district and Purnia division of Bihar (Araria, Katihar, Purnia and Kishanganj districts), and tea-garden regions of Assam (Kokrajhar, Sonitpur, Chirang and Udalguri districts). Outside India, the language is spoken in pockets of Rangpur and Rajshahi divisions of northern Bangladesh as well as the Morang and Jhapa districts in the Terai of Koshi Province in Nepal.[16][17]
Santali is one of India's 22 scheduled languages.[6] It is also recognised as the additional official language of the states of Jharkhand and West Bengal.[18][19]
Dialects of Santali include Kamari-Santali, Khole, Lohari-Santali, Mahali, Manjhi, Paharia.[5][20][21]
Santali has 21 consonants, not counting the 10 aspirated stops which occur primarily, but not exclusively, in Indo-Aryan loanwords and are given in parentheses in the table below.[22]
In native words, the opposition between voiceless and voiced stops is neutralised in word-final position. A typical Munda feature is that word-final stops are "checked", i. e. glottalised and unreleased.
Santali has eight oral and six nasal vowel phonemes. With the exception of /e o/, all oral vowels have a nasalized counterpart.
There are numerous diphthongs.
Santali prosody exhibits iambic patterns with stress is always released in the second syllable in most disyllabic words, excepting loan words from Hindi, Bihari, Bengali and Assamese.[23][24]
Like all Kherwarian languages, vowel harmony in Santali is a morphological triggered process.[25]
Santali, like all Munda languages, is a suffixing agglutinating language.
Nouns are inflected for number and case.[26]
Three numbers are distinguished: singular, dual and plural.[27]
| Singular | ᱥᱮᱛᱟ (seta) | 'dog' |
|---|---|---|
| Dual | ᱥᱮᱛᱟᱼᱠᱤᱱ(seta-ken) | 'two dogs' |
| Plural | ᱥᱮᱛᱟᱼᱠᱚ(seta-kɔ) | 'dogs' |
The case suffix follows the number suffix. The following cases are distinguished:[28]
| Case | Marker | Function |
|---|---|---|
| Nominative | -Ø | Subject and object |
| Genitive | ᱼᱨᱮᱱ (animate) ᱼᱟᱜ, ᱼᱨᱮᱭᱟᱜ (inanimate) |
Possessor |
| Comitative | ᱼᱴᱷᱮᱱ/ -ᱴᱷᱮᱡ | Goal, place |
| Instrumental-Locative | ᱼᱛᱮ | Instrument, cause, motion |
| Sociative | ᱼᱥᱟᱶ | Association |
| Allative | ᱼᱥᱮᱱ/ᱼᱥᱮᱡ | Direction |
| Ablative | ᱼᱠᱷᱚᱱ/ᱼᱠᱷᱚᱡ | Source, origin |
| Locative | ᱼᱨᱮ | Spatio-temporal location |
Transcript version:
| Case | Marker | Function |
|---|---|---|
| Nominative | -Ø | Subject and object |
| Genitive | -rɛn (animate) -ak', -rɛak' (inanimate) |
Possessor |
| Comitative | -ʈhɛn/-ʈhɛc' | Goal, place |
| Instrumental-Locative | -tɛ | Instrument, cause, motion |
| Sociative | -são | Association |
| Allative | -sɛn/-sɛc' | Direction |
| Ablative | -khɔn/-khɔc' | Source, origin |
| Locative | -rɛ | Spatio-temporal location |
Santali has possessive suffixes which are only used with kinship terms: 1st person -ɲ, 2nd person -m, 3rd person -t. The suffixes do not distinguish possessor number.[29]
The personal pronouns in Santali distinguish inclusive and exclusive first person and anaphoric and demonstrative third person.[30]
| Singular | Dual | Plural | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st person | exclusive | iɲ | əliɲ | alɛ |
| inclusive | alaŋ | abo | ||
| 2nd person | am | aben | apɛ | |
| 3rd person | Anaphoric | ac' | əkin | ako |
| Demonstrative | uni | unkin | onko | |
The interrogative pronouns have different forms for animate ('who?') and inanimate ('what?'), and referential ('which?') vs. non-referential.[31]
| Animate | Inanimate | |
|---|---|---|
| Referential | ɔkɔe | oka |
| Non-referential | cele | cet' |
The indefinite pronouns are:[32]
| Animate | Inanimate | |
|---|---|---|
| 'any' | jãheã | jãhã |
| 'some' | adɔm | adɔmak |
| 'another' | ɛʈak'ic' | ɛʈak'ak' |
The demonstratives distinguish three degrees of deixis (proximate, distal, remote) and simple ('this', 'that', etc.) and particular ('just this', 'just that') forms.[33]
| Simple | Particular | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Animate | Inanimate | Animate | Inanimate | ||
| Proximate | Singular | nui | noa | nii | nia |
| Dual | nukin | noakin | nikin | niakin | |
| Plural | noko/nuku | noako | neko/niku | niaku | |
| Distal | Singular | uni | ona | ini | ina |
| Dual | onkin | onakin | inkin | inakin | |
| Plural | onko/unku | onako | enko/inku | inako | |
| Remote | Singular | hani | hana | ||
| Dual | hankin | hanakin | |||
| Plural | hanko | hanako | |||
The basic cardinal numbers (transcribed into Latin script IPA)[34] are:
| 1 | ᱢᱤᱫ | mit' |
|---|---|---|
| 2 | ᱵᱟᱨ | bar |
| 3 | ᱯᱮ | pɛ |
| 4 | ᱯᱩᱱ | pon |
| 5 | ᱢᱚᱬᱮ | mɔ̃ɽɛ̃ |
| 6 | ᱛᱩᱨᱩᱭ | turui |
| 7 | ᱮᱭᱟᱭ | ɛyae |
| 8 | ᱤᱨᱟᱹᱞ | irəl |
| 9 | ᱟᱨᱮ | arɛ |
| 10 | ᱜᱮᱞ | gɛl |
| 20 | ᱤᱥᱤ | -isi |
| 100 | ᱥᱟᱭ | -sae |
The numerals are used with numeral classifiers. Distributive numerals are formed by reduplicating the first consonant and vowel, e.g. babar 'two each'.
Numbers basically follow a base-10 pattern. Numbers from 11 to 19 are formed by addition, "gel" ('10') followed by the single-digit number (1 through 9). Multiples of ten are formed by multiplication: the single-digit number (2 through 9) is followed by "gel" ('10'). Some numbers are part of a base-20 number system. 20 can be "bar gel" or "isi".
ᱯᱮ
pe
(3
×
ᱜᱮᱞ
gel
10)
or
or
or
(ᱢᱤᱫ)
(mit’)
((1)
×
ᱤᱥᱤ
isi
20
+
ᱜᱮᱞ
gel
10)
30
Verbs in Santali inflect for tense, aspect and mood, voice and the person and number of the subject and sometimes of the object.[35]
There are no specific markers for the Imperative.[36]
| Santali verb paradigm | Transitive | Intransitive |
|---|---|---|
| Future/Present | -Ø | -ok |
| Present Progressive | -et (-kan) | -ok-kan |
| Simple Past | -ket | -en |
| Pluperfect | -let | -len |
| Perfect | -akat | -akan |
| Past perfect | -akat-tahɛ̃kan | -akan-tahɛ̃kan |
| Past progressive | -et-tahɛ̃kan | -ok-kan-tahɛ̃kan |
| Optative | -ke | -k-ok |
| Irrealis | -le | -len |
| singular | dual | plural | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st person | exclusive | -ɲ(iɲ) | -liɲ | -lɛ |
| inclusive | -laŋ | -bon | ||
| 2nd person | -m | -ben | -pɛ | |
| 3rd person | -e | -kin | -ko | |
Transitive verbs with pronominal objects take infixed object markers.
| singular | dual | plural | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st person | exclusive | -iɲ- | -liɲ- | -lɛ- |
| inclusive | -laŋ- | -bon- | ||
| 2nd person | -me- | -ben- | -pɛ- | |
| 3rd person | -e- | -kin- | -ko- | |
Transitive verbs may form agreements with non-arguments/outside/indirect objects. To denote inalienable possession, prefix -t- is attached to the applicative forms of the pronouns; otherwise it is marked in the noun phrase and functions as an attribute.
ako-ge=ko
3PL-EMPH=3PL.SUBJ
idi-ke-t-ko-t-ako-a
take-AOR-TR-3PL.OBJ-POSS-3PL-FIN
'they took theirs away themselves'
Any finite verbs will attach -a, except the imperative and in the subordinate clause.[37]
noa-rɛak
this-GEN
mit
one
ʈaŋ
CLF
kɘhɘni
story
lɘi-ad-iɲ-a=e
tell-APPL.PST.A-1SG.OBJ-FIN=3SG.SUBJ
'he told me a story about this'
There are two causative markers: a- and -oco. -oco is attached on every type of verb stems, and a- is restricted to two transitive verbs jɔm ('eat') and ɲu ('drink').[38]
sɛn-otʃo-daɽe-a-e-a=ɲ
go-CAUS-ABIL-BEN-3SG.OBJ-FIN=1SG.SUBJ
'I let/made him come'
Infix -pV- turns transitive and ditransitive verb roots into reciprocal meaning, but in many verbs it also conveys that the action is done together by two participants.[39]
dal ('beat') > dapal ('beat each other')
landa ('laugh') > lapanda ('laugh together')
The benefactive for transitive and ditransitive stems is -ka in Northern Santali dialect and -ka-k in Southern Santali. In Southern Santali, if the object is animate, the last -k will be replaced by pronominal clitics.
tɔl ('bind') > tɔlka ('to bind for somebody')
Transitive verbs and a limited number of intransitive and intransitive-transitive verb roots will take -jɔn to form the Medio-passive voice.[40]
Transitive roots, transitive-intransitive roots, and causative stems will take -ok to derive passive stems. In the transitive-intransitive roots, it denotes the prominence of transitivity. Attaching it to transitive verbs will create reflexivity.[40]
ɲɛl ('see') > ɲɛlok ('be seen') (passive)
ranoco ('cause to medicate') > ranocok ('be caused to medicate') (causative > passive)
mak ('cut') > makok ('cut oneself') (reflexive)
Two or more verbs and modifiers can combine together to derive a compound verb. Normally they are combinations of two transitive verbs or two intransitive verbs and limited numbers of transitive+intransitive and intransitive+transitive combination.[41]
ɲɛlɲam-led-e-tahɛ̃kan-a=ko
see.find-PLUP.A-3SG.OBJ-COP-FIN=3PL.SUBJ
'they had seen and found him'
Complex predicates are pervasive in Munda clause structure. In Santali, there are univerbated auxiliary constructions to mark a quick, sudden, or intense action.[42]
ɲɛl-gɔt-ke-d-e-a=pɛ
see-AUX-AOR-TR-3SG.OBJ-FIN=2PL.SUBJ
'you guys suddenly caught sight of him' or 'you guys saw him off/said good-bye to him'
There are three particles in Santali used to express negation: baŋ, ɔhɔ and alo. baŋ and ba (shortened form) are the negatives for interrogative and declarative sentences; ɔhɔ is the emphatic negative of declarative sentences; alo is the prohibitive negative in the imperative. These negation particles will take away the subject marker from the verb.[43]
ba=ko
NEG=3PL.SUBJ
sap-le-d-e-a
catch-ANT-TR-3SG.OBJ-FIN
'they did not catch him'
alo=m
PROH=2SG.SUBJ
ləi-Ø-a-e-a
tell-PRES-BEN-3SG.OBJ-FIN
'don’t tell him'
The unmarked word order of Santali is SOV, though topics can be fronted.[44] The subject marker may appear enclitic to the verb itself if there is no preceding word.
ir-ke-t-ta-e-a=ko
cut-ASP-TR-POSS-3SG.OBJ-FIN=3PL.SUBJ
'they have cut his (paddy)'
In daily conversations, Santali speakers generally employ high percentages of words of native Austroasiatic/Munda/Santali origins, compared to other Munda languages such as Kharia and Juang. Loan words, mostly borrowed from Hindi, Assamese, Bengali, Nepali, Oriya and even English may account for almost 20% of the lexemes of daily needs. Younger generation who have opportunities to engage in higher education tend to be more accustomed with lexical influence from neighboring languages as well as English.[45]
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Notable linguist Khudiram Das authored the Santali Bangla Samashabda Abhidhan (সাঁওতালি বাংলা সমশব্দ অভিধান), a book focusing on the influence of the Santali language on Bengali and providing a basis for further research on this subject. 'Bangla Santali Bhasha Samparka (বাংলা সান্তালী ভাষা-সম্পর্ক) is a collection of essays in E-book format authored by him and dedicated to linguist Suniti Kumar Chatterji on the relationship between the Bengali and Santali languages.
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