Isotopes of krypton

There are 34 known isotopes of krypton (₃₆Kr) with atomic mass numbers from 69 through 102.^[5][6] Naturally occurring krypton is made of five stable isotopes and one (⁷⁸
Kr
) which is slightly radioactive with an extremely long half-life, plus traces of radioisotopes that are produced by cosmic rays in the atmosphere.

Isotopes of krypton (₃₆Kr)

Main isotopes[1] Decay abun­dance half-life (t1/2) mode pro­duct 78Kr 0.360% 9.2×1021 y[2] εε 78Se 79Kr synth 35 h ε 79Br β+ 79Br γ – 80Kr 2.29% stable 81Kr trace 2.3×105 y ε 81Br 81mKr synth 13.10 s IT 81Kr ε 81Br 82Kr 11.6% stable 83Kr 11.5% stable 84Kr 57.0% stable 85Kr trace 11 y β− 85Rb 86Kr 17.3% stable
Standard atomic weight Ar°(Kr)
	83.798±0.002[3] 83.798±0.002 (abridged)[4]
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List of isotopes

Nuclide [n 1]	Z	N	Isotopic mass (Da)[7] [n 2][n 3]	Half-life[1] [n 4][n 5]	Decay mode[1] [n 6]	Daughter isotope [n 7][n 8]	Spin and parity[1] [n 9][n 5]	Natural abundance (mole fraction)
	Excitation energy							Normal proportion[1]	Range of variation
67Kr	36	31	66.98331(46)#	7.4(29) ms	β+? (63%)	67Br	3/2-#
					2p (37%)	65Se
68Kr	36	32	67.97249(54)#	21.6(33) ms	β+, p (>90%)	67Se	0+
					β+? (<10%)	68Br
					p?	67Br
69Kr	36	33	68.96550(32)#	27.9(8) ms	β+, p (94%)	68Se	(5/2−)
					β+ (6%)	69Br
70Kr	36	34	69.95588(22)#	45.00(14) ms	β+ (>98.7%)	70Br	0+
					β+, p (<1.3%)	69Se
71Kr	36	35	70.95027(14)	98.8(3) ms	β+ (97.9%)	71Br	(5/2)−
					β+, p (2.1%)	70Se
72Kr	36	36	71.9420924(86)	17.16(18) s	β+	72Br	0+
73Kr	36	37	72.9392892(71)	27.3(10) s	β+ (99.75%)	73Br	(3/2)−
					β+, p (0.25%)	72Se
73mKr	433.55(13) keV			107(10) ns	IT	73Kr	(9/2+)
74Kr	36	38	73.9330840(22)	11.50(11) min	β+	74Br	0+
75Kr	36	39	74.9309457(87)	4.60(7) min	β+	75Br	5/2+
76Kr	36	40	75.9259107(43)	14.8(1) h	β+	76Br	0+
77Kr	36	41	76.9246700(21)	72.6(9) min	β+	77Br	5/2+
77mKr	66.50(5) keV			118(12) ns	IT	77Kr	3/2−
78Kr[n 10]	36	42	77.92036634(33)	9.2 +5.5 −2.6 ±1.3×1021 y[2]	Double EC	78Se	0+	0.00355(3)
79Kr	36	43	78.9200829(37)	35.04(10) h	β+	79Br	1/2−
79mKr	129.77(5) keV			50(3) s	IT	79Kr	7/2+
80Kr	36	44	79.91637794(75)	Stable			0+	0.02286(10)
81Kr[n 11]	36	45	80.9165897(12)	2.29(11)×105 y	EC	81Br	7/2+	6×10−13[8]
81mKr	190.64(4) keV			13.10(3) s	IT	81Kr	1/2−
					EC (0.0025%)	81Br
82Kr	36	46	81.9134811537(59)	Stable			0+	0.11593(31)
83Kr[n 12]	36	47	82.914126516(9)	Stable			9/2+	0.11500(19)
83m1Kr	9.4053(8) keV			156.8(5) ns	IT	83Kr	7/2+
83m2Kr	41.5575(7) keV			1.830(13) h	IT	83Kr	1/2−
84Kr[n 12]	36	48	83.9114977271(41)	Stable			0+	0.56987(15)
84mKr	3236.07(18) keV			1.83(4) μs	IT	84Kr	8+
85Kr[n 12]	36	49	84.9125273(21)	10.728(7) y	β−	85Rb	9/2+	1×10−11[8]
85m1Kr	304.871(20) keV			4.480(8) h	β− (78.8%)	85Rb	1/2−
					IT (21.2%)	85Kr
85m2Kr	1991.8(2) keV			1.82(5) μs	IT	85Kr	(17/2+)
86Kr[n 13][n 12]	36	50	85.9106106247(40)	Observationally Stable[n 14]			0+	0.17279(41)
87Kr	36	51	86.91335476(26)	76.3(5) min	β−	87Rb	5/2+
88Kr	36	52	87.9144479(28)	2.825(19) h	β−	88Rb	0+
89Kr[n 12]	36	53	88.9178354(23)	3.15(4) min	β−	89Rb	3/2+
90Kr	36	54	89.9195279(20)	32.32(9) s	β−	90mRb	0+
91Kr	36	55	90.9238063(24)	8.57(4) s	β−	91Rb	5/2+
					β−, n?	90Rb
92Kr[n 12]	36	56	91.9261731(29)	1.840(8) s	β− (99.97%)	92Rb	0+
					β−, n (0.0332%)	91Rb
93Kr	36	57	92.9311472(27)	1.287(10) s	β− (98.05%)	93Rb	1/2+
					β−, n (1.95%)	92Rb
94Kr	36	58	93.934140(13)	212(4) ms	β− (98.89%)	94Rb	0+
					β−, n (1.11%)	93Rb
95Kr	36	59	94.939711(20)	114(3) ms	β− (97.13%)	95Rb	1/2+
					β−, n (2.87%)	94Rb
					β−, 2n?	93Rb
95mKr	195.5(3) keV			1.582(22) μs	IT	85Kr	(7/2+)
96Kr	36	60	95.942998(62)[9]	80(8) ms	β− (96.3%)	96Rb	0+
					β−, n (3.7%)	95Rb
97Kr	36	61	96.94909(14)	62.2(32) ms	β− (93.3%)	97Rb	3/2+#
					β−, n (6.7%)	96Rb
					β−, 2n?	95Rb
98Kr	36	62	97.95264(32)#	42.8(36) ms	β− (93.0%)	98Rb	0+
					β−, n (7.0%)	97Rb
					β−, 2n?	96Rb
99Kr	36	63	98.95878(43)#	40(11) ms	β− (89%)	99Rb	5/2−#
					β−, n (11%)	98Rb
					β−, 2n?	97Rb
100Kr	36	64	99.96300(43)#	12(8) ms	β−	100Rb	0+
					β−, n?	99Rb
					β−, 2n?	98Rb
101Kr	36	65	100.96932(54)#	9# ms [>400 ns]	β−?	101Rb	5/2+#
					β−, n?	100Rb
					β−, 2n?	99Rb
102Kr[10]	36	66					0+
103Kr[11]	36	67
This table header & footer: view

1. ^mKr – Excited nuclear isomer.
2. ( ) – Uncertainty (1σ) is given in concise form in parentheses after the corresponding last digits.
3. # – Atomic mass marked #: value and uncertainty derived not from purely experimental data, but at least partly from trends from the Mass Surface (TMS).
4. Bold half-life – nearly stable, half-life longer than age of universe.
5. # – Values marked # are not purely derived from experimental data, but at least partly from trends of neighboring nuclides (TNN).
6. Modes of decay:

   n:	Neutron emission

7. Bold italics symbol as daughter – Daughter product is nearly stable.
8. Bold symbol as daughter – Daughter product is stable.
9. ( ) spin value – Indicates spin with weak assignment arguments.
10. Primordial radionuclide
11. Used to date groundwater
12. Fission product
13. Formerly used to define the meter
14. Believed to decay by β⁻β⁻ to ⁸⁶Sr

• The isotopic composition refers to that in air.

Notable isotopes

Krypton-81

Krypton-81 is useful in determining how old the water beneath the ground is.^[12] Radioactive krypton-81 is the product of spallation reactions with cosmic rays striking gases present in the Earth atmosphere, along with the six stable or nearly stable krypton isotopes.^[13] Krypton-81 has a half-life of about 229,000 years.

Krypton-81 is used for dating ancient (50,000- to 800,000-year-old) groundwater and to determine their residence time in deep aquifers. One of the main technical limitations of the method is that it requires the sampling of very large volumes of water: several hundred liters or a few cubic meters of water. This is particularly challenging for dating pore water in deep clay aquitards with very low hydraulic conductivity.^[14]

Krypton-85

Main article: Krypton-85

Krypton-85 has a half-life of about 10.75 years. This isotope is produced by the nuclear fission of uranium and plutonium in nuclear weapons testing and in nuclear reactors, as well as by cosmic rays. An important goal of the Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty of 1963 was to eliminate the release of such radioisotopes into the atmosphere, and since 1963 much of that krypton-85 has had time to decay. However, it is inevitable that krypton-85 is released during the reprocessing of fuel rods from nuclear reactors.^{[citation needed]}

Atmospheric concentration

See also: Nuclear reprocessing

The atmospheric concentration of krypton-85 around the North Pole is about 30 percent higher than that at the Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station because nearly all of the world's nuclear reactors and all of its major nuclear reprocessing plants are located in the northern hemisphere, and also well-north of the equator.^[15] To be more specific, those nuclear reprocessing plants with significant capacities are located in the United States, the United Kingdom, the French Republic, the Russian Federation, Mainland China (PRC), Japan, India, and Pakistan.

Krypton-86

Krypton-86 was formerly used to define the meter from 1960 until 1983, when the definition of the meter was based on the wavelength of the 606 nm (orange) spectral line of a krypton-86 atom.^[16]

Others

All other radioisotopes of krypton have half-lives of less than one day, except for krypton-79, a positron emitter with a half-life of about 35.0 hours.

References

1. Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021). "The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties" (PDF). Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030001. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae.
2. Patrignani, C.; et al. (Particle Data Group) (2016). "Review of Particle Physics". Chinese Physics C. 40 (10): 100001. Bibcode:2016ChPhC..40j0001P. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/40/10/100001. See p. 768
3. "Standard Atomic Weights: Krypton". CIAAW. 2001.
4. Prohaska, Thomas; Irrgeher, Johanna; Benefield, Jacqueline; Böhlke, John K.; Chesson, Lesley A.; Coplen, Tyler B.; Ding, Tiping; Dunn, Philip J. H.; Gröning, Manfred; Holden, Norman E.; Meijer, Harro A. J. (2022-05-04). "Standard atomic weights of the elements 2021 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. doi:10.1515/pac-2019-0603. ISSN 1365-3075.
5. "Chart of Nuclides". Brookhaven National Laboratory. Archived from the original on 2017-10-18. Retrieved 2011-11-21.
6. Sumikama, T.; et al. (2021). "Observation of new neutron-rich isotopes in the vicinity of Zr110". Physical Review C. 103 (1): 014614. Bibcode:2021PhRvC.103a4614S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.103.014614. hdl:10261/260248. S2CID 234019083.
7. Wang, Meng; Huang, W.J.; Kondev, F.G.; Audi, G.; Naimi, S. (2021). "The AME 2020 atomic mass evaluation (II). Tables, graphs and references*". Chinese Physics C. 45 (3): 030003. doi:10.1088/1674-1137/abddaf.
8. Lu, Zheng-Tian (1 March 2013). "What trapped atoms reveal about global groundwater". Physics Today. 66 (3): 74–75. Bibcode:2013PhT....66c..74L. doi:10.1063/PT.3.1926. Retrieved 29 June 2024.
9. Smith, Matthew B.; Murböck, Tobias; Dunling, Eleanor; Jacobs, Andrew; Kootte, Brian; Lan, Yang; Leistenschneider, Erich; Lunney, David; Lykiardopoulou, Eleni Marina; Mukul, Ish; Paul, Stefan F.; Reiter, Moritz P.; Will, Christian; Dilling, Jens; Kwiatkowski, Anna A. (2020). "High-precision mass measurement of neutron-rich 96Kr". Hyperfine Interactions. 241 (1): 59. Bibcode:2020HyInt.241...59S. doi:10.1007/s10751-020-01722-2. S2CID 220512482.
10. Sumikama, T.; et al. (2021). "Observation of new neutron-rich isotopes in the vicinity of Zr110". Physical Review C. 103 (1): 014614. Bibcode:2021PhRvC.103a4614S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.103.014614. hdl:10261/260248. S2CID 234019083.
11. Shimizu, Y.; Kubo, T.; Sumikama, T.; Fukuda, N.; Takeda, H.; Suzuki, H.; Ahn, D. S.; Inabe, N.; Kusaka, K.; Ohtake, M.; Yanagisawa, Y.; Yoshida, K.; Ichikawa, Y.; Isobe, T.; Otsu, H.; Sato, H.; Sonoda, T.; Murai, D.; Iwasa, N.; Imai, N.; Hirayama, Y.; Jeong, S. C.; Kimura, S.; Miyatake, H.; Mukai, M.; Kim, D. G.; Kim, E.; Yagi, A. (8 April 2024). "Production of new neutron-rich isotopes near the N = 60 isotones Ge 92 and As 93 by in-flight fission of a 345 MeV/nucleon U 238 beam". Physical Review C. 109 (4): 044313. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.109.044313.
12. Le-Yi Tu, Guo-Min Yang, Cun-Feng Cheng, Gu-Liang Liu, Xiang-Yang Zhang, and Shui-Ming Hu (2014). "Analysis of Krypton-85 and Krypton-81 in a Few Liters of Air". Analytical Chemistry. 86 (8): 4002–4007.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
13. Leya, I.; Gilabert, E.; Lavielle, B.; Wiechert, U.; Wieler, W. (2004). "Production rates for cosmogenic krypton and argon isotopes in H-chondrites with known ³⁶Cl-³⁶Ar ages" (PDF). Antarctic Meteorite Research. 17: 185–199. Bibcode:2004AMR....17..185L.
14. N. Thonnard; L. D. MeKay; T. C. Labotka (2001). Development of Laser-Based Resonance Ionization Techniques for 81-Kr and 85-Kr Measurements in the Geosciences (PDF) (Report). University of Tennessee, Institute for Rare Isotope Measurements. pp. 4–7. doi:10.2172/809813.
15. "Resources on Isotopes". U.S. Geological Survey. Archived from the original on 2001-09-24. Retrieved 2007-03-20.
16. Baird, K. M.; Howlett, L. E. (1963). "The International Length Standard". Applied Optics. 2 (5): 455–463. Bibcode:1963ApOpt...2..455B. doi:10.1364/AO.2.000455.

Sources

• Isotope masses from:
  • Audi, Georges; Bersillon, Olivier; Blachot, Jean; Wapstra, Aaldert Hendrik (2003), "The NUBASE evaluation of nuclear and decay properties", Nuclear Physics A, 729: 3–128, Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A, doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001
• Isotopic compositions and standard atomic masses from:
  • de Laeter, John Robert; Böhlke, John Karl; De Bièvre, Paul; Hidaka, Hiroshi; Peiser, H. Steffen; Rosman, Kevin J. R.; Taylor, Philip D. P. (2003). "Atomic weights of the elements. Review 2000 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. 75 (6): 683–800. doi:10.1351/pac200375060683.
  • Wieser, Michael E. (2006). "Atomic weights of the elements 2005 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. 78 (11): 2051–2066. doi:10.1351/pac200678112051.
• "News & Notices: Standard Atomic Weights Revised". International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. 19 October 2005.
• Half-life, spin, and isomer data selected from the following sources.
  • Audi, Georges; Bersillon, Olivier; Blachot, Jean; Wapstra, Aaldert Hendrik (2003), "The NUBASE evaluation of nuclear and decay properties", Nuclear Physics A, 729: 3–128, Bibcode:2003NuPhA.729....3A, doi:10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001
  • National Nuclear Data Center. "NuDat 2.x database". Brookhaven National Laboratory.
  • Holden, Norman E. (2004). "11. Table of the Isotopes". In Lide, David R. (ed.). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (85th ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. ISBN 978-0-8493-0485-9.

External links

• Brookhaven National Laboratory: Krypton-101 information Archived 2017-10-18 at the Wayback Machine