Embroidery

This article is about handcraft. For Bradbury's short story, see Embroidery (short story).

Embroidery is the art of decorating fabric or other materials using a needle to stitch thread or yarn. Embroidery may also incorporate other materials such as pearls, beads, quills, and sequins. In modern days, embroidery is usually seen on hats, clothing, blankets, and handbags. Embroidery is available in a wide variety of thread or yarn colour. It is often used to personalize gifts or clothing items.

Traditional Nakshi Kantha of Bangladesh

Embroidery sampler by Alice Maywood, 1826

Laid threads, a surface technique in wool on linen. The Bayeux Tapestry, 11th century

Some of the basic techniques or stitches of the earliest embroidery are chain stitch, buttonhole or blanket stitch, running stitch, satin stitch, and cross stitch.^[1] Those stitches remain the fundamental techniques of hand embroidery today.

History

Detail of embroidered silk gauze ritual garment. Rows of even, round chain stitch used for outline and color. 4th century BC, Zhou tomb at Mashan, Hubei, China.

Origins

The process used to tailor, patch, mend and reinforce cloth fostered the development of sewing techniques, and the decorative possibilities of sewing led to the art of embroidery.^[2] Indeed, the remarkable stability of basic embroidery stitches has been noted:

It is a striking fact that in the development of embroidery ... there are no changes of materials or techniques which can be felt or interpreted as advances from a primitive to a later, more refined stage. On the other hand, we often find in early works a technical accomplishment and high standard of craftsmanship rarely attained in later times.^[3]

The art of embroidery has been found worldwide and several early examples have been found. Works in China have been dated to the Warring States period (5th–3rd century BC).^[4] In a garment from Migration period Sweden, roughly 300–700 AD, the edges of bands of trimming are reinforced with running stitch, back stitch, stem stitch, tailor's buttonhole stitch, and Whip stitch, but it is uncertain whether this work simply reinforced the seams or should be interpreted as decorative embroidery.^[5]

Historical applications and techniques

A pair of Chinese shoes for bound 'lily' feet

Embroidered book cover made by Elizabeth I at the age of 11, presented to Katherine Parr

19th century women's thobe from Palestine

Depending on time, location and materials available, embroidery could be the domain of a few experts or a widespread, popular technique. This flexibility led to a variety of works, from the royal to the mundane. Examples of high status items include elaborately embroidered clothing, religious objects, and household items often were seen as a mark of wealth and status.

In medieval England, Opus Anglicanum, a technique used by professional workshops and guilds in medieval England,^[6] was used to embellish textiles used in church rituals. In 16th century England, some books, usually bibles or other religious texts, had embroidered bindings. The Bodleian Library in Oxford contains one presented to Queen Elizabeth I in 1583. It also owns a copy of The Epistles of Saint Paul, whose cover was reputedly embroidered by the Queen.^[7]

In 18th-century England and its colonies, with the rise of the merchant class and the wider availability of luxury materials, rich embroideries began to appear in a secular context. These embroideries took the form of items displayed in private homes of well-to-do citizens, as opposed to a church or royal setting. Even so, the embroideries themselves may still have had religious themes. Samplers employing fine silks were produced by the daughters of wealthy families. Embroidery was a skill marking a girl's path into womanhood as well as conveying rank and social standing.^[8]

Embroidery was an important art and signified social status in the Medieval Islamic world as well. The 17th-century Turkish traveler Evliya Çelebi called it the "craft of the two hands". In cities such as Damascus, Cairo and Istanbul, embroidery was visible on handkerchiefs, uniforms, flags, calligraphy, shoes, robes, tunics, horse trappings, slippers, sheaths, pouches, covers, and even on leather belts. Craftsmen embroidered items with gold and silver thread. Embroidery cottage industries, some employing over 800 people, grew to supply these items.^[9]

In the 16th century, in the reign of the Mughal Emperor Akbar, his chronicler Abu al-Fazl ibn Mubarak wrote in the famous Ain-i-Akbari:

His majesty [Akbar] pays much attention to various stuffs; hence Irani, Ottoman, and Mongolian articles of wear are in much abundance especially textiles embroidered in the patterns of Nakshi, Saadi, Chikhan, Ari, Zardozi, Wastli, Gota and Kohra. The imperial workshops in the towns of Lahore, Agra, Fatehpur and Ahmedabad turn out many masterpieces of workmanship in fabrics, and the figures and patterns, knots and variety of fashions which now prevail astonish even the most experienced travelers. Taste for fine material has since become general, and the drapery of embroidered fabrics used at feasts surpasses every description.^[10]

Conversely, embroidery is also a folk art, using materials that were accessible to nonprofessionals. Examples include Hardanger embroidery from Norway; Merezhka from Ukraine; Mountmellick embroidery from Ireland; Nakshi kantha from Bangladesh and West Bengal; Achachi from Peru; and Brazilian embroidery. Many techniques had a practical use such as Sashiko from Japan, which was used as a way to reinforce clothing.^[11][12]

While historically viewed as a pastime, activity, or hobby, intended just for women, embroidery has often been used as a form of biography. Women who were unable to access a formal education or, at times, writing implements, were often taught embroidery and utilized it as a means of documenting their lives by telling stories through their embroidery.^[13] In terms of documenting the histories of marginalized groups, especially women of color both within the United States and around the world, embroidery is a means of studying the everyday lives of those whose lives largely went unstudied throughout much of history.^[14]

21st century

Japanese free embroidery in silk and metal threads, contemporary

Hardanger, a whitework technique. Contemporary

Since the late 2010s, there has been a growth in the popularity of embroidering by hand. As a result of visual social media such as Pinterest and Instagram, artists are able to share their work more extensively, which has inspired younger generations to pick up needle and threads.^{[citation needed]}

Contemporary embroidery artists believe hand embroidery has grown in popularity as a result of an increasing need for relaxation and digitally disconnecting practices.^[15]

Modern hand embroidery, as opposed to cross-stitching, is characterized by a more "liberal" approach, where stitches are more freely combined in unconventional ways to create various textures and designs.^{[citation needed]}

Modern canvas work tends to follow symmetrical counted stitching patterns with designs emerging from the repetition of one or just a few similar stitches in a variety of hues. In contrast, many forms of surface embroidery make use of a wide range of stitching patterns in a single piece of work.^[16]

Climate crisis

Training women in traditional embroidery skills in Inner Mongolia, was begun by Bai Jingying as a reaction to the financial pressures caused by the impact of climate change, including desertification, in the region.^[17]

Classification

Tea-cloth, Hungary, mid-20th century

Embroidery can be classified according to what degree the design takes into account the nature of the base material and by the relationship of stitch placement to the fabric. The main categories are free or surface embroidery, counted-thread embroidery, and needlepoint or canvas work.^[18]

In free or surface embroidery, designs are applied without regard to the weave of the underlying fabric. Examples include crewel and traditional Chinese and Japanese embroidery.

Counted-thread embroidery patterns are created by making stitches over a predetermined number of threads in the foundation fabric. Counted-thread embroidery is more easily worked on an even-weave foundation fabric such as embroidery canvas, aida cloth, or specially woven cotton and linen fabrics. Examples include cross-stitch and some forms of blackwork embroidery.

While similar to counted thread in regards to technique, in canvas work or needlepoint, threads are stitched through a fabric mesh to create a dense pattern that completely covers the foundation fabric.^[19] Examples of canvas work include bargello and Berlin wool work.

Embroidery can also be classified by the similarity of its appearance. In drawn thread work and cutwork, the foundation fabric is deformed or cut away to create holes that are then embellished with embroidery, often with thread in the same color as the foundation fabric. When created with white thread on white linen or cotton, this work is collectively referred to as whitework.^[20] However, whitework can either be counted or free. Hardanger embroidery is a counted embroidery and the designs are often geometric.^[21] Conversely, styles such as Broderie anglaise are similar to free embroidery, with floral or abstract designs that are not dependent on the weave of the fabric.^[22]

Traditional hand embroidery around the world

This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by adding missing items with reliable sources.

Traditional embroidery	Origin	Stitches used	materials	Picture
Aari embroidery	Kashmir and Kutch, Gujarat, India	Chain stitch	Silk thread, fabric, beads or sequins
Art needlework	England
Assisi embroidery	Assisi, Italy	Backstitch, cross stitch, Holbein stitch	Cloth, red thread, silk, stranded perlé cotton
Balochi needlework	Balochistan, Pakistan		Beads, cloth, shisha, thread
Bargello	Florence, Italy	Vertical stitches (e.g. "flame stitch")	Linen or cotton canvas, wool floss or yarn
Berlin wool work	Berlin, Germany	Cross stitch or tent stitch	Linen or cotton canvas, wool floss or yarn
Blackwork	England	Backstitch, Holbein stitch, stem stitch	Linen or cotton fabric, black or red silk thread
Brazilian embroidery	Brazil	Bullion knots, cast-on stitch, drizzle stitch, French knots, featherstitch, fly stitch, stem stitch	Cloth, rayon thread
Broderie anglaise	Czechia	Buttonhole stitch, overcast stitch, satin stitch	White cloth and thread
Broderie perse	India		Chintz, thread
Bunka shishu	Japan	Punch needle techniques	Rayon or silk thread
Candlewicking	United States	Knotted stitch, satin stitch[23]	Unbleached cotton thread, unbleached muslin
Chasu	Korea	Chain stitch, couching, leaf stitch, long-and-short stitch, mat stitch, outline stitch, padding stitch, satin stitches, seed stitch
Chikan	Lucknow, India	Backstitches, chain stitches, shadow-work	Cloth, white thread
Colcha embroidery	Southwestern United States		Cotton or linen cloth, wool thread
Crewelwork	Great Britain	Chain stitch, couched stitches, knotted stitches, satin stitch, seed stitch, split stitch, stem stitch	Crewel yarn, linen twill
Goldwork	China	Couching, Holbein stitch, stem stitch	Cloth, metallic thread
Gota patti	Rajasthan, India
Gu Xiu	Shanghai, China		Silk cloth and thread
Hardanger embroidery	Norway	Buttonhole stitch, cable stitch, fly stitch, knotted stitch, picot, running stitch, satin stitch	White thread, white even-weave linen cloth
Hedebo embroidery	Hedebo, Zealand, Denmark		White linen cloth and thread
Kaitag textiles	Kaytagsky District, Dagestan, Russia	Laid-and-couched work	Cotton cloth, silk thread
Kalaga	Burma
Kantha	Eastern India		Old saris, thread
Kasidakari	India	Chain stitch, darning stitch, satin stitch, stem stitch
Kasuti	Karnataka, India	Cross stitch, double running stitch, running stitch, zigzag running stitch	Cotton thread and cloth
Khamak	Kandahar, Afghanistan	Satin stitch	Cotton or wool fabric, silk thread
Kuba textiles	The Congo	Embroidery, appliqué, cut-pile embroidery	Raffia cloth and thread
Kutch embroidery	Kutch, Gujarat, India		Cotton cloth, cotton or silk thread
Lambada embroidery	Banjara people
Mountmellick work	Mountmellick, County Laois, Ireland	Knotted stitches, padded stitches	White cotton cloth and thread
Opus anglicanum	England	Split stitch, surface couching, underside couching[24]	Linen or velvet cloth, metallic thread, silk thread
Opus teutonicum	Holy Roman Empire	Buttonhole stitch, chain stitch, goblien stitch, pulled work, satin stitch, stem stitch[25]	White linen cloth and thread[25]
Or nué	Western Europe	Couching	Fabric, metallic thread, silk thread
Orphrey
Needlepoint	Ancient Egypt	Cross stitch, tent stitch, brick stitch	Linen or cotton canvas, wool or silk floss or yarn
Phool Patti ka Kaam	Uttar Pradesh, India
Phulkari	Punjab	Darning stitches	Hand-spun cotton cloth, silk floss
Piteado	Central America		Ixtle or pita thread, leather
Quillwork	North America		Beads, cloth, feathers, feather quills, leather, porcupine quills
Rasht embroidery	Rasht, Gilan Province, Iran	Chain stitch	Felt, silk thread
Redwork	United States	Backstitch, outline stitch	Red thread, white cloth
Richelieu	Purportedly from 16th century Italy, revival in 19th century England and France	Buttonhole stitch	White thread, white cloth
Rushnyk	Slavs[26]	Cross stitch,[27] Holbein stitch, satin stitch[26]	Linen or hemp cloth, thread
Sashiko	Japan	Running stitch	Indigo-dyed cloth, white or red cotton thread
Sermeh embroidery	Achaemenid Persia		Termeh cloth, velvet, cotton fabrics, various threads
Sewed muslin	Scotland		Muslin, thread
Shu Xiu	Chengdu, Sichuan, China		Satin, silk thread
Smocking	England	Cable stitch, honeycomb stitches, knotted stitches, outline stitch, stem stitch, trellis stitch, wave stitch	Any fabric supple enough to be gathered, cotton or silk thread
Stumpwork	England
Su Xiu	Suzhou, Jiangsu, China		Silk cloth and thread
Suzani	Central Asia	Buttonhole stitches, chain stitches, couching, satin stitches	Cotton fabric, silk thread
Tatreez	Palestine,[28] Syria	Cross stitch	Cotton fabric, silk thread
Tenango embroidery	Tenango de Doria, Hidalgo, Mexico
Velours du Kasaï	Kasai, the Congo
Vietnamese embroidery	Vietnam
Xiang Xiu	Hunan, China		Silk cloth, black, white, and grey silk thread
Yue Xiu	Guangdong, China		Silk cloth and thread
Zardozi	Iran and India		Cloth, metallic thread
Zmijanje embroidery	Zmijanje, Bosnia and Herzegovina		Blue thread, white cloth[29]

Materials and tools

Materials

Multi-colored crewel wool threads on a panel of linen warp and cotton weft, 18th century English

The fabrics and yarns used in traditional embroidery vary from place to place. Wool, linen, and silk have been in use for thousands of years for both fabric and yarn. Today, embroidery thread is manufactured in cotton, rayon, and novelty yarns as well as in traditional wool, linen, and silk. Ribbon embroidery uses narrow ribbon in silk or silk/organza blend ribbon, most commonly to create floral motifs.^[30]

Surface embroidery techniques such as chain stitch and couching or laid-work are the most economical of expensive yarns; couching is generally used for goldwork. Canvas work techniques, in which large amounts of yarn are buried on the back of the work, use more materials but provide a sturdier and more substantial finished textile.^[31]

Tools

An embroidery hoop.

A needle is the main stitching tool in embroidery, and comes in various sizes and types.^[32]

In both canvas work and surface embroidery an embroidery hoop or frame can be used to stretch the material and ensure even stitching tension that prevents pattern distortion.^[33]

Machine embroidery

Commercial machine embroidery in chain stitch on a voile curtain, China, early 21st century

The development of machine embroidery and its mass production came about in stages during the Industrial Revolution. The first embroidery machine was the hand embroidery machine, invented in France in 1832 by Josué Heilmann.^[34] The next evolutionary step was the schiffli embroidery machine. The latter borrowed from the sewing machine and the Jacquard loom to fully automate its operation. The manufacture of machine-made embroideries in St. Gallen in eastern Switzerland flourished in the latter half of the 19th century.^[35] Both St. Gallen, Switzerland and Plauen, Germany were important centers for machine embroidery and embroidery machine development. Many Swiss and Germans immigrated to Hudson county, New Jersey in the early twentieth century and developed a machine embroidery industry there. Shiffli machines have continued to evolve and are still used for industrial scale embroidery.^[36]

Brother Innov-is V7 computerised Sewing/Quilting/Embroidery machine embroidering onto cloth held in a hoop

Contemporary embroidery is stitched with a computerized embroidery machine using patterns digitized with embroidery software. In machine embroidery, different types of "fills" add texture and design to the finished work. Machine embroidery is used to add logos and monograms to business shirts or jackets, gifts, and team apparel as well as to decorate household items for the bed and bath and other linens, draperies, and decorator fabrics that mimic the elaborate hand embroidery of the past.

Machine embroidery is most typically done with rayon thread, although polyester thread can also be used. Cotton thread, on the other hand, is prone to breaking and is avoided.^[37]

There has also been a development in free hand machine embroidery, new machines have been designed that allow for the user to create free-motion embroidery which has its place in textile arts, quilting, dressmaking, home furnishings and more. Users can use the embroidery software to digitize the digital embroidery designs. These digitized design are then transferred to the embroidery machine with the help of a flash drive and then the embroidery machine embroiders the selected design onto the fabric.

In literature

In Greek mythology the goddess Athena is said to have passed down the art of embroidery (along with weaving) to humans, leading to the famed competition between herself and the mortal Arachne.^[38]

Gallery

• 
  Nakshi Kantha from Sonargaon, Bangladesh Folk Arts and Crafts Foundation
• 
  Traditional embroidery in chain stitch on a Kazakh rug, contemporary.
• 
  Caucasian embroidery
• 
  English cope, late 15th or early 16th century. Silk velvet embroidered with silk and gold threads, closely laid and couched. Contemporary Art Institute of Chicago textile collection.
• 
  Extremely fine underlay of St. Gallen Embroidery
• 
  Traditional Turkish embroidery. Izmir Ethnography Museum, Turkey.
• 
  Traditional Croatian embroidery.
• 
  Decorated Easter eggs from the Luhansk region of Ukraine
• 
  Gold embroidery on a gognots (apron) of a 19th-century Armenian bridal dress from Akhaltsikhe
• 
  Brightly coloured Korean embroidery.
• 
  Uzbekistan embroidery on a traditional women's parandja robe.
• 
  Woman wearing a traditional embroidered Kalash headdress, Pakistan.
• 
  Bookmark of black fabric with multicolored Bedouin embroidery and tassel of embroidery floss
• 
  Chain-stitch embroidery from England c. 1775
• 
  Traditional Bulgarian Floral embroidery from Sofia and Trun.
• 
  A 1919 painting depicting the Brazilian flag being embroidered by a family.

See also

• Broderie de Fontenoy-le-Château
• Chikankari
• Chinese embroidery
• Embroidery of India
• Khamak
• Mary Ann Beinecke Decorative Art Collection
• Sachet (scented bag)
• Sampler (needlework)
• Sichuan embroidery

Notes

Citations

1. "Top 12 Basic Hand Embroidery Stitches". Sarah's Hand Embroidery Tutorials. Retrieved 2020-05-06.
2. Gillow & Sentance 1999, p. 12.
3. Marie Schuette and Sigrid Muller-Christensen, The Art of Embroidery translated by Donald King, Thames and Hudson, 1964, quoted in Netherton & Owen-Crocker 2005, p. 2.
4. Gillow & Sentance 1999, p. 178.
5. Coatsworth, Elizabeth: "Stitches in Time: Establishing a History of Anglo-Saxon Embroidery", in Netherton & Owen-Crocker 2005, p. 2.
6. Levey & King 1993, p. 12.
7. Harriet Bridgeman; Elizabeth Drury (1978). Needlework : an illustrated history. New York: Paddington Press. p. 42. ISBN 0-448-22066-0. OCLC 3843144.
8. Power, Lisa (27 March 2015). "NGV embroidery exhibition: imagine a 12-year-old spending two years on this..." The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 30 May 2015.
9. Stone, Caroline (May–June 2007). "The Skill of the Two Hands". Saudi Aramco World. Vol. 58, no. 3. Archived from the original on 2014-10-13. Retrieved 2011-01-21.
10. Werner, Louis (July–August 2011). "Mughal Maal". Saudi Aramco World. Vol. 62, no. 4. Archived from the original on 2016-02-22. Retrieved 2011-08-11.
11. "Handa City Sashiko Program at the Society for Contemporary Craft". Japan-America Society of Pennsylvania. 7 Oct 2016. Archived from the original on 5 July 2017. Retrieved 25 January 2018.
12. Siddle, Kat. "Sashiko". Seamwork Magazine. Colette Media, LLC. Retrieved 2018-01-26.
13. Murphy, A. Mary (July 2003). "The Theory and Practice of Counting Stitches as Stories: Material Evidences of Autobiography in Needlework". Women's Studies. 32 (5): 641–655. doi:10.1080/00497870390207149. S2CID 143527585.
14. van der Merwe, Ria (November 2017). "From a silent past to a spoken future. Black women's voices in the archival process". Archives and Records. 40 (3): 239–258. doi:10.1080/23257962.2017.1388224. hdl:2263/72551. S2CID 220316392.
15. Elin (2019-06-11). "History of embroidery and its rise in popularity". Charles and Elin. Archived from the original on 2019-07-25. Retrieved 2019-07-25.
16. Reader's Digest 1979, pp. 1–19, 112–117.
17. "Community threads together". chinadailyhk. Retrieved 2024-07-14.
18. Corbet, Mary (October 3, 2016). "Needlework Terminology: Surface Embroidery". Retrieved November 1, 2016.
19. Gillow & Sentance 1999, p. 198.
20. Reader's Digest 1979, pp. 74–91.
21. Yvette Stanton (30 March 2016). Early Style Hardanger. Vetty Creations. ISBN 978-0-9757677-7-1.
22. Catherine Amoroso Leslie (1 January 2007). Needlework Through History: An Encyclopedia. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 34, 226, 58. ISBN 978-0-313-33548-8. Retrieved 13 September 2013.
23. "The History and Technique of Candlewicking and Whitework". Needlepointers.com. 2020-10-27. Retrieved 2022-04-16.
24. "Technique - Opus Anglicanum". medieval.webcon.net.au. Retrieved 2022-04-16.
25. "Technique - Opus Teutonicum". medieval.webcon.net.au. Retrieved 2022-04-16.
26. K, Roman (2012-08-07). "FolkCostume&Embroidery: Rushnyk embroidery of southern East Podillia". FolkCostume&Embroidery. Retrieved 2022-04-16.
27. K, Roman (2014-07-01). "FolkCostume&Embroidery: Ukrainian Rose Embroidery". FolkCostume&Embroidery. Retrieved 2022-04-16.
28. Ollman, Leah (October 25, 2017). "Quiet power of embroidery hits eloquently". The Los Angeles Times. p. E3.
29. "UNESCO - Zmijanje embroidery". ich.unesco.org. Retrieved 2022-04-16.
30. van Niekerk 2006.
31. Reader's Digest 1979, pp. 112–115.
32. "Needles". Sarah's Hand Embroidery Tutorials. Retrieved 2020-05-06.
33. "Materials Required for Hand Embroidery". Sarah's Hand Embroidery Tutorials. Retrieved 2020-05-06.
34. Willem. "Hand Embroidery Machine". trc-leiden.nl. Retrieved 2019-02-19.
35. Röllin, Peter. Stickerei-Zeit, Kultur und Kunst in St. Gallen 1870–1930. VGS Verlagsgemeinschaft, St. Gallen 1989, ISBN 3-7291-1052-7 (in German)
36. Schneider, Coleman (1968). Machine Made Embroideries. Globe Lithographing Company.
37. "Choosing Machine-Embroidery Threads". Threads Magazine. The Taunton Press, Inc. 2008-11-02. Retrieved 2018-11-27.
38. Synge, Lanto (2001). Art of Embroidery: History of Style and Technique. Woodbridge, England: Antique Collectors' Club. p. 32. ISBN 9781851493593.

Bibliography

• Gillow, John; Sentance, Bryan (1999). World Textiles. Bulfinch Press/Little, Brown. ISBN 0-8212-2621-5.
• Levey, S. M.; King, D. (1993). The Victoria and Albert Museum's Textile Collection Vol. 3: Embroidery in Britain from 1200 to 1750. Victoria and Albert Museum. ISBN 1-85177-126-3.
• Netherton, Robin; Owen-Crocker, Gale R., eds. (2005). Medieval Clothing and Textiles, Volume 1. Boydell Press. ISBN 1-84383-123-6.
• Complete Guide to Needlework. Reader's Digest. 1979. ISBN 0-89577-059-8.
• van Niekerk, Di (2006). A Perfect World in Ribbon Embroidery and Stumpwork. Search Press. ISBN 1-84448-231-6.

Further reading

• Berman, Pat (2000). "Berlin Work". American Needlepoint Guild. Archived from the original on 2009-02-06. Retrieved 2009-01-24.
• Caulfeild, S.F.A.; B.C. Saward (1885). The Dictionary of Needlework.
• Crummy, Andrew (2010). The Prestonpans Tapestry 1745. Burke's Peerage & Gentry, for Battle of Prestonpans (1745) Heritage Trust.
• Embroiderers' Guild Practical Study Group (1984). Needlework School. QED Publishers. ISBN 0-89009-785-2.
• Koll, Juby Aleyas (2019). Sarah's Hand Embroidery Tutorials.
• Lemon, Jane (2004). Metal Thread Embroidery. Sterling. ISBN 0-7134-8926-X.
• Vogelsang, Gillian; Vogelsang, Willem, eds. (2015). TRC Needles. The TRC Digital Encyclopaedia of Decorative Needlework. Leiden, The Netherlands: Textile Research Centre.
• Wilson, David M. (1985). The Bayeux Tapestry. Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-25122-3.

External links

• Media related to Embroidery at Wikimedia Commons

• The History of Embroidery